Greek-Mesopotamian Architecture PDF

NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE REYES, JOHN MATTHEW R. | BS ARCHITECTURE 1-B GREEK ARCHITECTURE 1,300 BC - the wealth of Helladic towns began to decline....

NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE REYES, JOHN MATTHEW R. | BS ARCHITECTURE 1-B GREEK ARCHITECTURE 1,300 BC - the wealth of Helladic towns began to decline. GEOGRAPHICAL The rugged nature of the Greek Peninsula and its widespread J 1,200 BC – the Trojan War began. The destruction of Helladic citadels was one of many events which brought about the end of Bronze Age civilization and the advent of the Iron Age in Greece islands, made communication difficult. It was bounded on two sides by Black Sea and the Meditteranean sea”, Athens as its center C. HELLENIC GREECE (800-323BC) - By the 8th cent kingdom contains the upper city known as “Citadel” ury B.C. the city state (“Polis”) emerged as the basis of Greek GEOLOGICAL society and the Greeks adopted an alphabet from the Phoenicians, the lack of political unity was to some extent countered by a sort of Marble is the chief building materials in Greece but they also have federal unity derived from common language, customs and religion. ample supplies of the building stones By 600 BC the cities of Greece had settled down to their several CLIMATIC forms of government- oligarchic, tyrannical or democratic and by the end of 6th century the tempo of events & ideas accelerated further. Climate was intermediate between “cold and hot”, which favored an outdoor life dramatic presentations, most of public ceremonies took The rule of Pericles (444-429BC) marked the climax of Athenian place in an open air, even in religious rites, due to limited public prosperity, and the tremendous outburst of building activity in buildings other than temples reconstruction which has to express the ultimate development of Hellenic art and architecture. RELIGIOUS Essentially columnar and trabeated and in Acropolis was crowned by “AEGEANS” worship nature, Priestesses rather than priests Parthenon. By the 6th century, Parthenon was converted into a conducted the religious rites. Christian Church Parthenon Parthenon in the Acropolis GREEK represents their deities by large statues. They worship D. HELLENISTIC GREECE (232-30BC) - The succession of natural phenomena Sparta was short-lived & the 4th century saw a sequence of SOCIAL AND POLITICAL attempts by city-states to dominate Grece. Chief diversons were music, dancing, wrestling, boxing, gymnastics - The vast territory became a Hellenistic empire through which and bull-fighting often with religious connection. Greek civilization was extended new 8 splendid cities where founded of which Alexandria was to be the largest & most famous. Women were participating in hunting and more strenuous games, as well as craftwork. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER Tyrannic, aristocratic and democratic were the forms of government A. AEGEAN ARCHITECTURE (circa 3,000-1,100 B.C.) and Perticles- one of the democratic leaders in Athens. Characteristic Features: HISTORICAL 1. Low pitch or flat roof on multi- storey structures 2. Stairway was developed for vertical circulation Periods of Development 3. Houses termed as “Megaron” and palaces were principal building types A. AEGEAN or Early Period (3000 BC – 700 BC) - embraces the civilizations of Crete & mainland Greece from earliest times to about Megaron areas: 1,100 B.C. - The civilizations grew & expanded, developing a a. Enclosed porch commercial empire protected by navalpower. b. Living apartment or megaron proper 2,000 BC – occurred a particular invasion of migrant peoples, who may have come originally from South c. Thalamus or sleeping room Russia. - spoke language like Greek & introduced houses originally designed for more wintry climates. Between 1,800-1,600 B.C. – the whole Aegean culture developed until by the latter date it had achieved a power co-equal with the civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Between 1,600-1,400 B.C. – the brilliance of the civilizations continued, but there is evidence that the balance of power & influence moved in the reserved direction & Cretan influence declined after 1,500 B.C. In about 1,450-1,400 B.C. – Knossos and other palace towns were destroyed and the civilization they represented collapsed in ruin. 4. Four methods of walling surface finishes B. MYCENAEAN or HELLADIC PERIOD (1,400-1,100BC) – a. Cyclopean – a masonry made up of huge stone blocks laid Mainland centers had always required defense; quarrelling & “mortar” violence among the towns perpetuated insecurity and necessity for b. Polygonal – a mansonry which is constructed with stones protection, & the magnificent but grim fortifications of Mycenae and having polygonal faces Tiryns conjures up an atmosphere of somewhat barbarity cruelty in c. Rectangular – block of stone cut into rectangular shapes strange contrast to the refined architecture, art and living which d. Inclined blocks – stones with inclined blocks existed within. B. Greek Architecture or Hellenic Period Characteristic of Greek Architecture 1. Simplicity and Harmony 2. Purity of Lines 3. Perfection of Proportions 4. Refinement of Details The Hellenic Period chief building type were temples which were built towards the rising sun (east) Characteristic Features 1. They use rectangular plans 2. Temples gateway “propylaea” 3. Collonade surrounds the temple 4. Ceilings were omitted and treated with timber paneled coffers “lacunaria” 5. Walls were made up of stones 6. Marble sculptures completed the buildings 7. Mural paintings on the walls of temples was highly developed 8. Optical illusions were connected from horizontal lines not to appear dropping or sagging from the center, a slight convex outlines were formed for stylobates, cornices and architraves from the temple “Parthenon”, the same with vertical lines foe columns Examples of Architectural Structures A. Aegean Architecture or Early Period 1. Gate of Lions, Mycenae – most ancient stone sculpture in Europe - great upright stone jambs support an immense lintel, spanning 3.2 & measuring 4.9m long by 1.06m high in the middle, by 2.4m deep. Above is a triangular relieving opening formed by advancing stone courses, trimmed to shape & filled with a stone slab, 51mm thick, bearing a relief carving of two rampant lions facing a central column.  Section of Atreus 2. Palaces – used by kings or local chieftains e.g. Palaces of King - The walls were coated with stucco outside, & either tinted, or Minos, Knosses – The whole spanned roughly 122m each way & painted with patterns inspired by the framed construction which lay covered about four acres additionally on the west side, there was behind. paved market court & to the North of it, a thetral area, flanked by - Gypsum, plentiful in Crete, also served to make hard, polished banks off broad, shallow steps, for public display and sports. floors & roof decking carried on rounded logs, or was used in slabs THE PALACE, TYRINS- is a hill-top citadel surrounded by for similar purposes. defensive walls upwards of 7.3m thick. At points where there are The Rock-Cut or Chamber Tomb Hellenic Period: 650-323 storage chambers embodied, the thickness is as 17.3m. The BC) masonry is of cyclopean type. The palace of Mycenae The ruins palace of Mycenae. Greek architectural style was essentially columnar & trabeated (trabs - a beam), and this gave it that simple straightforward character in 3. Tombs Two Types of Aegean Tombs which the constructive system is self-evident. Greek columns & their a. Tholos entablatures were at first entirely of timber, with terra-cotta decorations in the upper trabeation, but were converted into stone – a subterranean stone-vaulted construction, shaped like an old- quite early in the period, about 600 BC. The translation was quite fashioned beehive. It consists of a long passage known as “leading direct, timber forms being imitated in stone with remarkable to a domed chamber. exactness. b. The rock-cut or chamber tomb – a rectangular chamber about Temenos - Sacred enclosure, also known as citadel or acropolis or 3.6 to 6.1m cube is cut within the slope of a convenient hillside & upper city. approached with a passage or “Dromos” open to the sky leading to a doorway in the rock façade. Important Structures Found in the Acropolis A. - Principal temple B. - Pinacotheca (picture gallery) C. - Glyptotheca (sculpture gallery) D. - Statue of Athena E. - The Erechtheion F. - Old Temple of Athena G. - The Parthenon H. - Theater of Dionysos I. - Stoa of Eumenes J. - Odeion of Herodes Atticus K. - Temple of Nike Apteros Civic Square or City Square or Market Place The focus of Greek’s political, business and economic life. - Greek: Agora - Italian: Piazza - French: Place - English: Market - Roman: Forum Examples: - Civic Square at Miletus - Civic Square at Ephesus Certainly! Here is the content arranged without numbering - Civic Square at Priene and retaining all the details: Treasury of Atreus, Mycenae It is 14.6m in diameter & 13.6m high inside, made up of 34 rings of masonry, capped by a single stone, dressed after completion to the form of a pointed dome.  - Dipteral: Temples have a double line of columns surrounding the Naos. - Pseudo-dipteral: Temples are like the last, but inner range of columns is omitted on the flanks of the Naos. Temples The chief class of buildings in the Hellenic Period; usually the plan is rectangular in shape. - Built with special regard to outward effect, since they were not intended for internal worship & the altar stood opposite the east front. - Adorned with fine sculpture in order to form fitting shrines to the deities to whom they were dedicated. - Generally stood upon a crepidoma of three or more steps Parts of Greek Temple - Naos: The principal chamber in a Greek temple containing the statue of deity, with porticoes and colonnades. - Pronaos: The inner portico in front of the naos or cella of the naos. - Epinaos or Opisthodomus: Posticum which serves as the treasury chamber. Architectural Terms Two Ways of Describing Temples - Dado: The portion of the pedestal between its base & cornice. A term also applied to the lower portions of walls when decorated - According to the number of columns on the entrance front separately. - By the arrangement of the exterior columns of the temple in Certainly! Here is the content relation to the Naos as below: arranged without removing any words: - HENOSTYLE: One column - DISTYLE: Two columns - TRISTYLE: Three columns - TETRASTYLE: Four columns From the original two “orders of - PENTASTYLE: Five columns Architecture”, DORIC and IONIC - HEXASTYLE: Six columns evolved simultaneously by the - HEPTASTYLE: Seven columns two main branches of the Greek - OCTASTYLE: Eight columns race, there at length arose a 3rd, - ENNEASTYLE Nine columns the CORINTHIAN, a purely - DECASTYLE: Ten columns decorative variant which although - DODECASTYLE: Twelve columns invented by the Hellenic Greeks was only to attain its full identity in the hands of the Romans. Forms of Greek Temple -In antis: Temples have from 1-4 columns between antae at the front. Two is the usual The ETRUSCAN developed the Tuscan, inspired by the DORIC & a number. simpler cruder version of it. While the last to appear was the - Amphi-antis: Temples have from 1-4 columns “composite”, a Roman contribution which did not differ greatly from between antae at the front & rear. Two is the the Corinthian & which was an offshoot from the IONIC. usual number. - Prostyle: Temples have a portico of columns at the front. DORIC – used chiefly south Italy & Sicily on the Greek mainland. - Amphi-prostyle: Temples have a portico of columns at the front & IONIC – Asia Minor rear. - Peripteral: Temples have a single line of columns surrounding the HELLENISTIC PERIOD (232-30BC) Naos. - Pseudo-peripteral: Temples have flank columns attached to the This period provided much of the decorative inspiration of some Naos wall. Roman building types. Greek Hellenic Architecture mostly had been of a religious character, but from the 4th century BC onwards, public buildings multiplied in types & number & passed into permanent PINACOTHECA – a picture gallery or a building to contain painted form. They were dignified & gracious structures. pictures Civic design developed space, & entire groups of buildings were laid out in symmetrical lines in orderly schemes, often linked by colonnade porticoes or “STOAS”. TRABEATED ARCHITECTURE, but arches began to appear over wall-openings, & large, niche-like recesses in building plans. TRABEATED– a style of architecture in Greek in which the beam forms the constructive feature. - Crepidoma: The steps forming the base of a columned Greek temple. EXEDRAE or EXEDRA – a recess or alcove with raised seat where the disputation of the learned took place. - Pediment: A triangular piece of wall above the entablature enclosed by raking cornices. VOUSSOIRS – the truncated wedge-shaped blocks forming an arc - Antefixae: Ornamental blocks fixed vertically at regular intervals along the lower ledge of a roof, to cover the ends of tiles. PROPYLAEA - or entrance gateways, marked the approach to the sacred enclosure in many cities such as Athens, Epidauros, Eleusis & Priene. - EVOLUTION OF THE DORIC ORDER PEDIMENT – in renaissance any roof ends whether triangular or semicircular in Gothic called gable. *In classic architecture, a triangular piece of wall above the entablature is enclosed by raking cornices. Mutules: Projecting inclined blocks in cornices, derived from the ends of wooden beams.  - Guttae: Small cones under the Triglyphs & Mutules of the Doric entablature. - Regula: The short band, under the triglyphs, beneath the tenia of the Doric entablature, & to which the Guttae are attached. - Annulets: A small flat fillet encircling a column. It is several times repeated under the ovolo or echinus of the Doric capital. - Trachelion: The neck of the Greek Dorian column, between the - Acroterion: Blocks resting on the vertex & lower extremities of the annulets & the gromes or hypotrachelion. pediment to support statuary or ornaments. - Hypotrachelion: The channels or grooves beneath the Trachelion at the junction of the capital & shaft of a column. - Entablature: The upper part of an order of architecture, comprising architrave, frieze & cornice, supported by a colonnade. - Column: A vertical support, generally consisting of a base, circular shaft, & spreading capital. - Antefixae: Ornamental blocks, fixed vertically at regular intervals along the lower edge of roof, to cover the ends of tiles. - Tympanum: The triangular surface bounded by the sloping & horizontal cornices of a pediment. THE DORIC ORDER - The simplest, earliest and the most perfect among the orders. - It has a timber origin. Greek columns began as tapered tree trunks, the function of the square abacus & circular echinus comprising the capital being to gather & transmit the load of the entablature to the column shaft. - The lowest of the cornice represents the wooden plate across the - Cornice: The crowning or upper portion of the entablature, also tops of the triglyphs to receive the wide, flat rafters, recognizable in used for any crowning projection. stone architecture as mutules, which always retain a slope echoing the pitch of the roof. - It stands without a base directly on the crepidoma, usually of three steps, and has a height, including the capital, of from 4-6 times the diameter at the base in the Hellenistic period. Arris: The sharp edge formed by the meeting of two surfaces. - Frieze: The middle division of the classic entablature. Flutes: The vertical channeling on the shaft of a column. Abacus: The slab forming the crowning member of a capital Echinus: The convex or projecting moulding, resembling the shell of the sea urchin, which supports the abacus of the Greek Doric Capital. The Doric Entablature - Architrave or Principal Beam: Usually made up of two or three slabs in depth, the outermost showing a vertical face in one plane. - Architrave: The beam or lowest division of the entablature, which - Frieze: Formed of triglyphs with three upright channels, which extends from column to column. Also a moulded frame around a alternate with the metopes or square spaces, often ornamented with door & window. fine relief sculpture. A triglyph is aligned over each column & there is usually one over each intercolumniation. -Capital: The crowning feature of a column or pilaster. - Cornice: The upper part, with at the top a cymatium or gutter - Shaft: The portion of a column between base & capital. moulding. - Stylobate: The upper step forming a platform on which a Some Doric Temples in Greece colonnade is placed. - Triglyph: Blocks with vertical channels which form a distinguishing feature in the Frieze of the Doric entablature. - Metope: The space between Doric Triglyphs, sometimes left open in ancient examples, afterwards applied to the carved slabs. - Tenia: A flat projecting band capping the architrave of a Doric entablature. IONIC ORDER - The most sophisticated, less heavy than the Doric. - The Ionic order is especially remarkable for its volute or scroll capital. The spiral was also a common motif in Aegean art, the Ionic order evolved from timber forms. - Including capital & base, usually about 9 times their lower diameter in height & have 24 flutes Separated by fillets and not by arrises or sharp edges as in the Doric column. Plinth– the lowest square member of the base of a column. Fillets – a small flat band between mouldings to separate them from each other. Flutes – a vertical channeling on the shaft of a column. Examples of Corinthian Temples - Temple of Olympian Zeus The Ionic Entablature - The Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, Athens Dentils – tooth-like blocks in Ionic & Corinthian cornices. BAS-RELIEF - Carving in low or shallow relief on a background. Cymatium – the crowning member of a cornice generally in the form MOULDINGS – Architectural devices that give definition to the salient of a cyma (above). lines of a building with the help of light and shade. Ionic Order – second capital introduced by Greek architecture; more Greek mouldings were refined and delicate in contour due to the sophisticated order, less heavy than the Doric, less elaborated than fine-grained marble and the clear atmosphere and continuous the Corinthian. sunshine which produced strong shadows from slight projections. Examples - CYMA RECTA – Often carved with honeysuckle ornament, whose outline corresponds with the section. - CYMA REVERSA (ogee) – When enriched, is carved with the water leaf and tongue. - OVOLO (egg-like) – When enriched, is carved with the egg and dart, or egg and tongue ornament. - FILLET – A small plain face to separate other mouldings, usually without enrichment. - ASTRAGAL OR BEAD – Serves much the same as the fillet but approaches a circle in section. Sometimes carved with the “bead and reel.” Corinthian Order - CAVEITO – A simple hollow. - The slenderest, elegant, and the most elaborated order with - SCOTIA – A deep hollow which occurs in bases and is generally not acanthus leaves and caucoli stalks. enriched. - This appears in Greek architecture in the 5th century B.C. as a - TORUS – A magnified head moulding which, when enriched, is decorative variant of the Ionic, the difference lying almost entirely in carved with the guilloche or plait ornament, or with bundles of the column capital. leaves tied with bands. Three Parts - BIRDS BEAK MOULDING – Occurs frequently in the Doric order and gives a big shadow. 1. Architrave 2. Frieze - THE CORONA – The deep vertical face of the upper portion of the 3. Cornice – the cornice is the developed type, with small dentils in cornice, often painted with a Greek ‘feet’ ornament. the bedmould. Caucoli – any of the ornamental stalks rising between the leaves of a Corinthian capital from which the volutes spring. MODILLION - A projecting member or bracket that supports weights, generally formed with scrolls or volutes. When carrying the upper members of a cornice, brackets are generally termed modillions or 'consoles,' sometimes also termed as ancones. ANCONES – Consoles on either side of a doorway supporting a cornice. Corinthian Order – The third capital introduced by Greek architecture, the most elaborated and elegant of all the three capitals introduced by the Greeks. It looks like an “inverted bell.” Examples of Greek Temples - The Parthenon, Athens – (Doric, Peripteral, Octastyle) – Dedicated to the goddess Athena, the largest Greek temple by architect Ictinus and Callicrates and master sculptor Phidias. - The Temple of Zeus Olympus, Agrigentum – (Doric, Pseudo- Peripteral, Heptastyle) – The second-largest Greek temple by Architect Theron, using Atlantes (carved male figures supporting the world in a kneeling position). - Temple of Apollo Epicurius, Bassae – (Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Peripteral, Hexastyle) – By architect Ictinus. - Temple of Nike Apteros, Athens – (Ionic, AmphiProstyle, Tetrastyle) – Dedicated to the “wingless victory.” - The Olympeion, Athens – (Corinthian, Dipteral, Octastyle) – By architect Cossutius and builder Antiochus Epiphanes. - The Erechtheion, Athens – (Ionic, Apteral, Irregular Plan, No side Colonnades) – Forms the imposing entrance to the Acropolis. Uses Caryatid porch and “egg and tongue” or “egg and dart” ornaments. - Tower of the Winds, Athens – (Octagonal structure) – Known as the Horologium of Andronikos Cyrrhestes, Clepsydra or water clock internally, sundial externally. - The Temple of Artemis, Ephesus – (Hellenistic Temple, Ionic, Dipteral, Octastyle) – One of the Seven Wonders of the World. The center of the PanIonic festival of the Asiatic Colonies by Architect Deinocrates, under the time of Alexander the Great and master sculptor Scopas. Propylaea – Entrance gateways that marked the approach to the sacred enclosures in many cities. - Propylaea of Athens – Forms the imposing entrance to the Acropolis. - Propylaea, Epidauros - Propylaea, Priene - Propylaea, Eleusis Theater – An open-air structure consisting of an orchestra, - The Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, Athens – (Corinthian) – A auditorium or cavea, skene, stage, parascenia, stoae, and diazoma. type of monument erected to support a Tripod, as a prize for The building was generally hollowed out of the slope of a hillside, in athletics and musical competitions in Greek festivals. or near a city, and received definitive architectural form only in the PRYTANEION – Served as the senate house for the chief dignitaries 4th century B.C. of the city and as a place where distinguished visitors and citizens might be entertained. Parts of the Theater - Prytaneion, Olympia - Orchestra – Circular paved space. - Prytaneion, Athens - Auditorium or cavea – In tiers of stone seats arranged in a - Prytaneion, Priene horseshoe shape around the circular paved space (orchestra) used by the chorus. - Skene or scene – For actors. - Stage or logeion - Parascenia or dressing room - Diazoma or wide horizontal walkway between the upper and lower auditorium seats. - Stoae or columnated portico. Examples - The Theater of Dionysus, Athens – Where famous Choragic BOULEUTERION – Council house, a covered meeting place for the competitions took place during the Panathenaic festivals; considered democratically elected councils. the prototype of all Greek theaters and accommodating almost 18,000 spectators. - Boulevterion, Miletus – Largest accommodation of 1,200 people. - The Theater Epidauros – The most beautiful and preserved Greek temple by architect Polycleitus. ASSEMBLY HALLS – Used by citizens in general, similar but needed to be longer. Public Buildings - Thersillion, Megapolis - Restoration of Athens, Olympia, Delphi, and Epidaurus provides an - Ecclesiasterion, Priene idea of the distribution of buildings on these famous sites. ODEION – A type of theater used mainly by musicians for the presentation of their works for competition and public approval. AGORA – The town square, an open-air space that was the center of - Odeion of Pericles, Athens social and business life, around or near which were stoas or - Odeion of Herodes Atticus, Athens colonnaded porticoes, temples, administrative and public buildings, markets, places of entertainment, monuments, and shrines. Also a marketplace. STADIUM or STADION – Foot racecourse in cities where games were celebrated and used for other athletic performances. It had a length of about 183m (600ft) between banks of seats founded on convenient natural ground or from the spoil of excavation of flat. - The Stadium, Athens – Accommodating up to 50,000 spectators by Architect Herodes Atticus. - Louisiana Superdome – largest stadium HIPPODROME – A plan similar to a stadium but longer, used for horse and chariot racing; the prototype of the Roman Circus. STOA – A long colonnaded building that connects public monuments and provides shelter. Stoas are used around public places and as shelters and religious shrines. - Stoa of Eumenes, Athens - Echo Colonnade or Stoa Poikile, Olympia - Stoa of Atallos, Athens PALAESTRA – A wrestling school.  friezes on the podium. Between the columns stood Nereids or marine nymphs. - THE LION TOMB - TOMB OF THE WEEPERS, SIDON - SARCOPHAGUS, CNIDOS – Taken from a tomb chamber, the ornamental treatment given to a stone coffin hewn out of one block GYMNASIUM – A place for physical exercises of all kinds; both the of marble with sculptures of a late period. palaestra and gymnasium were prototypes of Roman Thermae. - Mausoleum, Halicarnassus (353 BC) – The most famous of all tombs and one of the Seven Wonders of the World; it was a huge Parts of the Gymnasium marble tomb erected for King Mausolus of Caria in Asia Minor by his - Courts for athletes widow, Artemisia, and from it is derived the term “Mausoleum” - Tanks for bathers applied to monumental tombs. Architects were Phythius and Satyrus - Dressing rooms and toilets and the master sculptor was Scopas - Exedrae and other seats for spectators - Stores, places for rest and conversation - Ephebium or club – For lectures Examples - Gymnasia, Olympia - Gymnasia, Ephesus - Gymnasia, Pergamum Domestic Buildings or Greek Houses – usually one storey with rooms built around an internal court, with porticoes on three sides and chambers grouped around The Greeks lived much of their waking life in the public and sacred parts of the city, and their houses were initially modest in scope and materials. The Dorian Greeks developed the “pastas” house, being a long shallow room crossing the house from side to side and partly open on the south towards the court, while serving as access to the main inner rooms to the north. For example, House No. 33 at Priene is planned similarly to the Aegean Megaron and is considered to be the best example of a Greek house, along with the NAVAL BUILDINGS – Included ship-sheds and stores (at this time, Maison Della Colline at Delos. the principle of roof truss was not yet understood). Canephora – sculpted female figures bearing baskets on their heads. - Sanctuary of the Bulls, Delosk TOMBS – Monumental tombs or mausoleums. Caryatid Porch – sculpted female figures used as columns or - NEREID MONUMENT – (Xanthos) Typifies Ionian sculptural supports. luxuriance and the use in Greek Asia Minor of a temple form of a tomb, elevated on a high podium. The entablature lacks a true frieze, but the architrave is sculptured, and there are other bas-relief  - Volute – a spiral scroll in an Ionic capital; smaller versions appear on Corinthian and Composite capitals. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE ORIGINS OF ROMAN ARCHITECTURE a. As with sculpture, the Romans borrowed heavily from two cultures that they conquered – The ETRUSCANS and the GREEKS. b. Elements of Roman architecture show very significant Greek Telamon or Telamones – male figures in a kneeling position influence. supporting the world on their shoulders. c. However, Roman functional needs sometimes differed, resulting in interesting innovations. d. The Romans were less attached to “ideal” forms and extended Greek ideas to make them more functional. e. Romans needed interior space for worship, whereas the Greeks worshiped outside. f. Their solution was to extend the walls outward, creating engaged columns, while maintaining the same basic shape A. GEOGRAPHICAL Atlas or Atlantes – carved male figures serving as pillars. The central and commanding position of Italy in the Mediterranean Sea enabled Rome to act as an intermediary in spreading art and civilization over Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. B. GEOLOGICAL They also have an ample supply of marbles, terracotta, stones, bricks, sand, gravel and timber. Concrete was formed of stones or brick rubble and a mortar of which the important ingredient was pozzolana. C. CLIMATIC Terminologies Rome was divided into three regions: North Italy has the climate of - Abacus – the flat square slab on top of the capital; uppermost the temperature region of Europe, Central Italy is genial member of a capital. {comforting} and sunny, while the South is almost tropical. - Ancon or Console – a scrolled bracket which supports a cornice or entablature over a door or a window. D. RELIGIOUS - Andron / Andronitis – the part of a building used by men, Since the Romans were originally a mixed people, their polytheistic especially the banquet room. religion was the fusion of several cults, but owed most to the - Apotheca – store room; wine storage. Etruscans who involve a scrupulous attention to rituals to - Cyclostyle – a circular colonnade. conformity, and to the will of the gods in a Fatalistic acceptance of - Cyrtostyle – a circular projecting portico. their domination. Religion became part of the constitution of the - Dentils – a small square block used in series in Ionic, Corinthian, state. They venerated more their emperors than their gods and Composite, and rarely in Doric cornices. because of this attitude, there were less temples to make - Dromos – the long deep passageway to an ancient Egyptian tomb. worshipping. -Entasis – a slight convex curve used on Greek columns (vertical and horizontal) to correct the optical illusion of concavity, which results E. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL in dropping and sagging. - Fluting – shallow, concave grooves running vertically on the shaft Romans were not colonizers but conquerors. They have that of a column, pilaster, or other surfaces. outward expression of the national love of power. - Glyptotheca– a sculpture gallery. - Hecatompedon – a building 100 feet long or wide; especially the F. HISTORICAL cella of the Parthenon. From its legendary foundation in 753 B.C. and throughout the sixth - Konistra – in ancient Greek theater, it was the orchestra. century B.C. Rome was little more than an insignificant hill town in -Loggia – an arcaded or colonnaded porch or gallery attached to a South Etruria. It was under Etruscan domination and ruled by larger structure. Etruscan Kings, aided by a form of popular assembly, Towards the - Modillion – a console on the underside of a doorway supporting a close of the sixth century B.C., Etruscan supremacy began to decline cornice. and fall. The declaration and development of a constitutional - Plinth – the lowest square member of the base of a column. republic and civil service are indicative of Roman characteristics; - Quadriga – a chariot drawn by four horses. they were great organizer, thrifty patient farmersolders, dutiful to - Thesaurus – the treasury house of ancient Greece. authority and the law and concerned with efficiency and justice. - Triga – a chariot drawn by three horses. - Vestibule – the anteroom or small foyer leading into a larger space. PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT e. Buttress – a mass of masonry built against a wall to resist the pressure of an arch or vault. f. Pinnacle – a turret or part of a building elevated above the main 1. Etruscan – the early inhabitants of West-central Italy. They building. This was placed on the tops of sput buttresses to help by were great builders and their methods were taken over by the their weight to drive the oblique thrusts more sleeply down to earth Romans. They made remarkable advances in the organization of large scale undertakings, such as the construction of city walls and TWO COLUMN CAPITAL DEVELOPED sewers, the draining of marshes and the control of rivers, and the cutting of channels to regulate the water level of lakes. They were 1. TUSCAN ORDER is the simplified version of the Roman Doric credited with the earliest use of the true or radiating arch, TUSCAN. Order and has no shaft flute. Their temples were oriented at the South. 2. Roman – adopted the columnar and trabeated style or the Greeks and developed the arch, vault, and dome of the Etruscans G. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER 1. Vastness and magnificence 2. Ostentation and ornateness Different Types of Vaults Developed by the Romans 2. COMPOSITE – combines the prominent volutes of lonic with the acanthus of the Corinthian on its capital and is thus the most a. Roman Waggon Vault – semi circular or wagon headed vault decorative. The shaft may be fluted or plain. It is a Roman otherwise known parallel walls of a rectangular apartment elaboration of the Corinthian Order. b. Roman Waggon Vault with Intersecting Vault ROMAN CONCRETE WALLS Opus Quadratum – made up of rectangular blocks of stones with or without mortar joints but frequently secured with dowels or cramps, still continued in used stones 2x2x4 Roman feet in dimensions c. Cross-Vault – formed by the intersection of two semi-circular vaults of equal span, was used over a square apartment and the pressure was taken by the four angles Opus Incertum – stones became quite small, and on the wall faces appeared in a loose pattern roughly resembling the polygonal work Opus Recticulatum – fine joints running diagonally like the meshes of a net; each stone unit was precisely square though ste Lozenge fashion. Opus Testaceum – triangular bricks {plan} specially made for facing the walls; brick facing superseded the reticulate work became the hallmark of the imperial period in Italy. RECTANGULAR TEMPLES - Roman temples are an amalgamation of Etruscan and Greek types, the typical prostyle portico and podium were derived from Etruscan temple. The most characteristics is pseudo peripteral, which instead of side colonnades, has half columns attached to the walls with a prostyle portico in front, raised in a podium, oriented towards the south. Temple of Foruna Virilis, Rome Temple of Mars, Rome Opus mixtum – consisted of bands of tufa introduced at intervals in the ordinary brick facing or alternation of course of brickwork and small, squared stones blocks. CIRCULAR AND POLYGONAL TEMPLES derived from the The Romans adopted the columnar and trabeated style of Greeks, temples of the Greeks and the Etruscans which became the and developer also the arch and the vault from the beginnings made prototype of the Christian baptistery by Etruscans. This combined use of column, beam and arch is the keynote of the Roman style in its earliest stages. In the colosseum Temple of Vesta, Rome – the most sacred shrine and source of piers strengthened and faced by attached half column support Roman life and power arches, which in their turn, carry the entablature. In the aqueducts, the arch was supported on piers without the facing column. Thus The Pantheon, Rome- most famous and perfect preservation of all the orders of architecture (Greek used in constructively) were used ancient buildings in Rome. It was now converted into a Christian by Roman as decorative features which could be omitted. church named Sta. Maria Rotunda. The Pantheon at Rome, the first illustration of Roman construction, embodies every form of Roman buttress. The building is two tiers high to the springing of the hemispherical dome inside. But there is an extra tier on the outside, providing rigid and weighty haunches to prevent the dome from splitting outwards and as an extra precaution, a further series of steps of concrete rises two thirds at height of the dome. ROMAN ARCHITECTURAL EXAMPLES FORUMS - The forum, corresponding to agora in a Greek city was a central open spaced used as a meeting place, market or rendezvous for political demonstrations. In towns which had grown from small beginnings, forums were often somewhat irregular in shape, but when towns were newly founded or for some reason partially rebuilt, BASILICAS- halls of Justice or assembly hall the usual of basilica the forums were laid out systematically on formal lines. was a rectangle twice as long as its width. Either two or four rows of columns forming a nave or two or four aisles ran the whole length e.g Forum Romanum, Rome- oldest and most important, used as and there were sometimes galleries over the aisles. hippodrome Basilica of Trajan, Rome – built by apollodorus of Damascus Forum of Trajan, Rome- largest forum Basilica of Constantine, Rome – also known as Basilica Maxentius or Basilica Nova built by Emperor Maxentius between 307 and 310 and completed by Constantine the Great after 312  AMPHITHEARES OR COLOSSEUM- used for gladiatorial combats, elliptical in plan. The Colosseum, Rome(70-82)- known as “ Flavian Amphitheater” commenced by Vespasian and completed by Domitian. Ground Floor- Doric columns with ¾ shafts Second Floor- Ionic columns Third Floor- Corinthian Columns Fourth Floor- Corinthian pilasters with corbels THERMAE- Palatial public baths of Imperial Rome. THREE MAIN PARTS 1. Main Building- Central structure with chief apartments. a. Tepidarium-warm room b. Calidarium- hot room or with hot water bath c. Frigidarium- cooling room d. Sudarium- dry sweating room e. Apodyteria- dressing room f. Palaestra- for physical exercises g. Unctuaria or untoria- place for oils and perfumes. h. Sphaeristerium- game room XYSTUS OR PUBLIC PARK WITH AVENUES OF TREES- a larger The Colosseum in Rome is best known for its multilevel system of open space with trees, statues and fountains, part of it was used as vaults made of concrete. It is called the Colosseum for a colossal a stadium for foot racing and where athletic sports took place. An statue of Nero that once stood nearby. It was used for staged Outering of Apartments a. Lecture rooms battles between lions and Christians, among other spectacles, and is one of the most famous pieces of architecture in the world. The A. Exedrae Colosseum at Rome italy has a vast ellipse 189 x 156.5m with eighty B. Collonade external arcaded openings on each storey, those on the ground floor C. Large reservoir forming entrances from which the various tiers of seats were D. Shops reached. Thermae of Caracalla, Rome- with a capacity of 1,600 bathers. Verona Arena- One of the best-preserved amphiteaters of the Roman Empire is in the center of the Italian City of Verona. Dating from the 1st Century A.D., the Verona Arena is used today for operas and concerts. BALNEUM- small private bath in Roman Palaces and houses containing the Tepidarium, Calidarium and frigidarium. THEATRES OR ODEION- Built up by means of concrete vaulting CIRCUSES- for horse and chariot racing, was derived from the and supporting tiers of seats. Roman theatres often adopted from Greek Hippodrome. Chariot racing was enormously popular, and vast the greek to suit the roman drama, and for this the auditorium, sums were spent upon the training and selection of men and horses. which it tiers of seats one above the other, was restricted to a semi circle. e.g; Circus Maximus, Rome – with total length of 2,000 feet and width of 650 feet and seated 255,000 spectators. CIRCUS Theater Orange-considered one of the bestpreserved Roman MAXIMUS, ROME (PLAN) theaters in the world and is used today for theatrical performances. TOMBS The Roman practiced both forms of burial, cremation and interment, and thus sarcophagi for the ashes are sometimes found in the same tomb chamber. The Roman had five classes of burial places: 1.) Coemeteria or Subterranean Vaults and later called “Catacombs” by the early Christian Period. It contained the following: Columbaria- niches formed in the rock to receive a vase containing the ashes of the deceased and with the name inscribed thereon. Loculi- or recesses of corpse were sealed with a front slab inscribed with the name. 4) Temple Shaped Tomb- usually consisted of a mortuary chapel often having a colonnaded portico or peristyle. e.g. Mausoleum of Diocletian, Spalato 5) Sculptured Memorials- minor tombs, a small but richly outside. e.g. Tomb of Naevoleia Tyche, Pompeii Sarcophagus TRIUMPHAL ARCHES- erected for emperors and generals commemorating victorious campaign. e.g. The Arch of Titus, Rome (A.D. 82)- with a single opening commemorates the capture of Jerusalem. On each main face 2) Monumental Tombs – consisted of a large cylindrical blocks, attached columns flank the opening and the outer angles, and these often in a quadrangular podium, topped with a conical crown of slab are earliest known examples of the fully developed Roman or stone.e.g. Mausoleum of Augustus, Rome- a huge cylinder Composite Order. 88.39m (290 ft.) in diameter, faced in travertine, supporting a mound of earth, 44.20m (145 ft.) high from the ground, planted with evergreen trees and surmounted b a bronze of effigy of Augu The Arch of Titus Arch of Constantine, Rome (A.D. 312)- built in honour of Constantine’s victor over Maxentius, is a proportions with eight monolithic detached Corinthian columns supporting an entablature returned back to the wall, and on the attic storey, a Quadriga. Much of the decorative structure was brought from earlier monument of the time of Trajan, and represents incidents of his reign. 3.) Pyramidal tombs- followed by the design of Egyptian Pyramids e.g. Pyramid of Chestius, Rome  Rostral Columns, Rome- frequently erected in the time of the emperors to celebrate naval victories and took their name from the rostra, or rows of captured ships. Arch of Augustus, Perugia- built of a large blocks of travertine stones, without mortar. PALACES- used to house the emperors e.g. Palaces of the Emperors, Rome Golden House of Nero, Rome Palace of Diocletian, Spalato- largest palace and often called “a city in a house” covered a total of 8 acres, almost the size of TOWN GATEWAYS AND ARCHWAYS Escorial, Spain. ROMAN HOUSES Roman dwelling houses are of three types: Domus or private houses- center of family apartments Three main types: Typical Parts of a Domus Those forming part of protective wall circuit usually simple but sometimes elaborated into commemorative monuments. Ornamental portals to forums, market places or other large enclosure. Arches build at main street intersections particularly when the main street were colonnaded. e.g. Porte S. Andre, and the Porte d’ Arroux, Autun Porte De Mars, Rheims Portico of Octavia, Rome- by Augustus Prothyrum or entrance passage Atrium or entrance court- open to the sky and at the center is an “Impluvium” a water cistern collector. Tablinum- open living room Peristyle- an inner colonnaded court with garden Cubicula- bedroom Oecus- reception room Alae- recesses for conversation Kitchen and Pantry Triclinia- dining room PILLARS OF VICTORY OR MONUMENTAL COLUMNS- erected to record triumphs of victorious generals (conquered by land) e.g. Trajan’s Column, Rome- a Roman Doric Column, entirely of marble with a total height of 115 ft. 7 inches and a shaft 12 ft. 12 inches diameter with a spiral staircase.  AQUEDUCTS- used for water supply, with smooth channels or specus lined with hard cement and carried on arches, in several tiers. The Romans gave importance to an adequate water supply. Immense quantitie of water were required for the great thermae and for public fountains, and for domestic supply for the large population. e.g. The Pont du Gard, Nimes, France- forms part of a magnificent aqueduct, 40km (25 miles) long, constructed to bring water to Nimes from the neighborhood of Uzes. It is 268.83m long and formed three tiers of arches, crossing the valley 47.24m above the river gard. In two lover tiers the arch above the river is the wildest and the others vary in width, while in the uppermost tier there are 35 arches of 4.27m span supporting the “specus” or water channel. e.g.Aqua Marcia, Rome Village or Country House- a luxurious country house with Aqua Claudia, Rome- built by Emperors Caligula and Claudia surrounding terraces and gardens, colonnades, palaestra, theater and thermae. e.g. Hadrian’s Villa, Tivoli- largest villa Road Building The need to move legions and trade goods in Insula or Apartment Blocks- many storeyed tenement also allweather led to the development of the best roads in the world (to called “workmen’s dwelling” the 19th century). Roman Appian Way-The Appian Way was the first long road built specifically to transport troops outside the smaller region of greater Rome The house of Pansa, Pompeii- illustrates the typical domus or family mansion. It comprises two options; atrium or forepart, which served for formal occasions as well as normal use; and a rear or “peristyle” portion, which was the more intimate private part Peristyle- a range of columns surrounding a court or a temple BRIDGES OR PONS- simple, solid and practical construction Atrium- an apartment in a Roman house, forming an designed to resist the rush of water entrance hall or court, the roof open to the sky in the center. e.g. Pons Sublicius, Rome Copluvium- (rain) a quadrangular opening in the atrium Pons Mulvius, Rome of a roman house towards which the roof sloped so as to Pons Fabricius, Rome throw the rain water into a shallow cistern or impluvium in the floor Bridge of Augustus, Rimini (A.D.14)- the best preserved and. Prothyrum- a porch or vestibule in the front of the one of the finest ancient structure in Italy. Impluvium- a shallow tank under the compluvium, as opening in the roof of an atrium. Lean-to – a small extension to a building with a roof having but one slope whose supports lean against the building. Tablinum- a large open room or apartment for family records and hereditary statues situated at the end of the atrium farthest from the main atrium. Feuces- the passageway from the street to the atrium  FOUNTAINS- striking features of ancient and modern Rome Two Cloaca Maxima, Rome- constructed as an open drain for the types: valleys between the hills of Rome. Lacus or Locus- designed similar to a large basin of water Salientes- similar to a large basin of water with spouting jets e.g. Fountain of the Four Rivers, Rome- by Gianlorenzo Bernini Temple of Juno Sospita, Lanuvium- the plan has thee cells for three dieties and a front portico with two rows of four columns, widely spaced and approached by walled-in steps. Necropolis Cerveteri- is one of the most remarkable burial sites. The tombs are laid out systematically along paved streets, like a town for the living. Quadriga- four- horsed chariot, in sculpture EXAMPLES OF ETRUSCAN STRUCTURES: Etruscan Sacorphagi- both ordinary burial, and cremation were practiced in Etrunia. The receptacles grew increasingly large, until the 4th century B.C. Sacorpahagi of stone, alabaster and terra-cotta were used in very large numbers.  ARCHITECTURE IN THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST allowed freedom of worship among the many different ethnic groups in the vast empire, earning their respect and goodwill. (MESOPOTAMIAN ARCHITECTURE) Darius the Great, successor of Cyrus the Great, founded Persepolis as the ceremonial center and administrative capital of the Persian A. GEOGRAPHICAL Empire. The Ancient Near East or the West Asiatic Architecture flourished and developed the twin Rivers of Tigris and Euphrates, also known as Mesopotamia. It refers to Persia, Assyria and Babylon. A number of ancient civilizations flourished in the region that once was Mesopotamia. In the 6 th century BC Cyrus the Great established the Persian Empire, and Mesopotamia came under Persian rule. The empire ruled by persia eventually became the largest empire in the world had yet known. Darius I established the capital at Persepolis in the late 6th century BC primarily as a residence and a place for large receptions. The business of government was carried out elsewhere, chiefly at Susa and Ecbatana. Babylonia was one of the first civilizations in the world. It formed around the region where the Tigris and Euphrates rivers flow in XERXES I-Persian King, inherited his throne after the death of his relatively parallel courses toward the Persian Gulf. The region is also father Darius I. his ambitious plans to expand the Persian Empire part of what is known as the Fertile Crescent, so named because the into Europe never materialized. people who lived in this crescent-shaped area developed rich, irrigated farmlands. NEBUCHADNEZZAR II-During his 43 years reign (605-562 BC), Nebuchadnezzar II expanded the Kingdom of Babylonia by Assyria flourished in the region the ancient Greeks called conquering much of southwestern Asia. Mesopotamia. An Assyrian king established what was probably the first centrally organized empire in the Middle East, Between 1813 SARGON II- right, ruled the Assyrian Empire for 17 years beginning and 1780 BC. In the ancient Middle East for being relentless and in 722 BC. During his reign the power and extent of the Assyrian ruthless warriors. Empire greatly increased. This carving in low relief is from Sargon’s palace at Khorsabad in present day Iraq. ASHURNASIRPAL II-reigned in the 9th century BC and was one B. GEOLOGICAL of the most influential Assyrian rulers. Under his rule the Assyrian ❖Due to floods and heavy rains, the earthen is converted into clay borders were extended and the capital was moved from Ashur to the to produced bricks in Assyria and Babylon. restored city of Calah. ❖Due to rare experience of rain in Persia, they have timber and CYRUS THE GREAT- In the 6th century BC Cyrus the great overthrew the ruling Median Kingdom and established the coloured limestones for their construction materials. Chaemenid Dynasty of the Persian Empire. C. CLIMATIC Mesopotamia experiences floods and heavy rains which have resulted in building of “ZIGGURATS”. In Persia, they have dry and hot climate which resulted in the open type temples. D. RELIGIOUS Mesopotamians were superstitious, believers of symbolism and also believers of genies and demons. Persians were believers of good and evil. They believed that the good usually triumphs in the ends. E. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL Babylonians among the three were considered extraordinary because they achieved the highest degree of civilization. Assyrians and Persians believed in military superiority thus manifested in their buildings. HAMMURABI- King of Babylon, united the diverse tribes in Mesopotamia by strategically conquering territory in the region. During his rule (circa 1792 to 1750 BC), he proved to be as able an administrator as general. The code of Hammurabi, a set of laws for the conduct of individuals and society that he codified, is one of the first bodies of written law. DARIUS I “DARIUS THE GREAT” This stone carving depicts Darius I, right, also known as Darius the Great, and his son and successor Xerxes I. Darius I ruled the Persian Empire from 522 to 486 BC. He secured the outer borders of the empire and reformed its internal organization, built highways, encouraged commerce, and organized a postal system. Darius G. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER B. TWO OR MORE STAGES ZIGGURAT - rectangular in plan, designed with several piers or stages. 1. MASSIVENESS 2. MONUMENTALITY e.g. The Ziggurat, Nimrud, Tower of Babel 3. GRANDEUR CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES: PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE- Columnar and Trabeated with flat timber roof, sometimes domed. Persian palaces and tombs were derived from old civilization. ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE- Arcuated type of construction; arch and vault and flat strips, Buttresses with glazed adornment. Palaces are the chief structures. Temples were with or without Ziggurats BABYLONIAN ARCHITECTURE- Arcuated type of construction; Arch and Vault and Flat strips, Buttresses with glazed adornment. Ziggurat is the most important structure and the orientation of the four corners of ziggurat are towards the cardinal point. C. ASSYRIAN TYPE: SEVEN STAGES SQUARE BASE ZIGGURAT EXAMPLES OF STRUCTURES: BABYLON -e.g. Palace of Nebuchadnezzar-has the famous Hanging Garden of Babylon. Ziggurat at Bursippa-seven stage pyramid dedicated to 1. ZIGGURATS or Holy Mountains-the chief building structure, seven heavenly planets square or rectangle in plan with steeply battered sides and an open platform on top. 2. THE CITY OF BABYLON- with 250 towers and 100 Bronze gates 3. TEMPLE OF MARDUK-grandest of all Babylonian Temples THREE TYPES OF ZIGGURATS A. ARCHAIC ZIGGURAT- Usually have one flat top rectangular mound carrying the upper temple.  B. ASSYRIA THE PALACE CONTAINS THE FOLLOWING: 1. PALACE OF SARGON, KHORSABAD- Entrance and portals A. PALACE OF DARIUS flanked with statues of headed winged bulls and lions. It contained 700 rooms. IMPORTANT PARTS OF THE PALACE A. SERAGLIO- Palace proper which includes the king’s residence, halls, men’s apartment and reception courts. B. HAREM- Usually designed with a private family apartment. C. KHAN- service chambers; in Muslim, inn for traveler’s prototype in Persian, Turkey temple. PERSIA 1. PALACE PLATFORM, PERSEPOLIS- occupies 1,500 and 1,000 ft. and is elevated 40 ft.; built by Darius I. GUARDIAN BULLS-huge stone bulls flank the western entrance to the gate of Xerxes, the ceremonial entryway to the citadel of the achaemenid capital of Persepolis. GUARDIAN MANBULLS- A pair of winged man-bulls guard the east door of the gate of Xerxes. The human headed creatures, with their stylized hair and beards, are reminiscent of Assyrian sculpture.  DECORATIVE RELIEF Many of the relief sculptures at Persepolis represent plant life, such as this highly stylized floral representation from the east stairs of the Apadana. The relief is bordered by a row of 12 petaled rosettes, an ancient symbol of sun, spring, and fertility. Stone doorways and 13 of the 72 massive stone columns that originally supported the Apadana, or audience hall, at Persepolis are still standing today. Each column was 20 m (66ft) tall and was topped by an elaborate capital. The double-headed animals at the top of the capitals once supported wooden roof beams. Persepolis is located in the mountainous region of southwestern Iran. The dry climate preserved much of the architecture, and archaeologists have uncovered and restored many of the ruins. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS: PLAN: Babylonian palaces and temples were built on artificial platform 30’ above the plain. Ziggurats which grow in several tiers had their angles to the cardinal points, same with the Assyrians and Persians. WALLS: Babylonian walls are normally made of sun-dried bricks finished with kiln burnt. Assyrian walls are also made of sun-dried bricks finished with polychrome. Persian walls are also made of bricks and followed the Assyrian style. OPENINGS: Babylonian and Assyrian doors are usually spanned by semi-circular while Persian doors are spanned by lintels. WINDOWS: Babylonian and Assyrian windows are not in use while Persian noblemen in military garb appear to climb the steps of the Persian windows are also spanned by lintels. Council Hall on their way to the chambers within. ROOFS: Roofs are flat and externally and also in some cases tunnel TERMINOLOGIES vaults and domes are used. MEGARON- the principal hall of the Mycenean Palace COLUMNS: Babylonians and Assyrians have no columns. Persians column features high moulded base, flatted shafts, bracket form of Piano Nobile- an upper suite or reception the topmost capitals were of twin bulls, dragons or sometimes Labyrinths- a Maze of twisting passageway human head. Dromos- Mycenean beehive MOULDINGS: Babylonians and Assyrians mouldings were of little use. Persian adopted mouldings from the Egyptians. ORNAMENTS: Assyrian and Persian ornaments have monster planking entrance portals, mural decoration by polychrome bricks of blue, white, yellow and green low relief of slabs.