Module 1: Introduction to Psychology PDF

Introduction To Psychology PSYCORE-INPSY IN...

Introduction To Psychology PSYCORE-INPSY INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES to your first module! KARL MICHAEL M. VALDULLA, CHRA Course Instructor/Professor BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE Gen. Luna St. Guitnangbayan I, San Mateo, Rizal No part of this module may be reproduced, Tel. No. (02) 997-9070 www.smmc.edu.ph distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior permission of the instructor. © San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved © San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved MODULE ONE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY “The purpose of psychology is to give us a completely different idea of the things we know best.” Paul Valery SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA © San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved INPUT INFORMATION: MODULE ONE: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? Psychology is now formally defined as the scientific study of behaviors and mental processes. However, the definition of psychology has changed radically over the past century. The history of psychology is the history of a field struggling itself as a separate and unique scientific discipline. WHAT ARE THE OBJECTIVES OF PSYCHOLOGY? To describe behavior. What is the nature of this behavior? To understand behavior. Why does it occur? To predict behavior. When will it occur? To influence or alter behavior in order to achieve a goal. What conditions affect it? WHY IS THE HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY IMPORTANT? THE EARLY HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY The beginning of psychology can be traced back several centuries to the writings of the Greek philosophers. Three (3) centuries before the birth of Christ, the Greek Philosopher Aristotle wrote extensively about topics like sleep, senses, dreams, and memory. Hundreds of years later, French Philosopher Rene Descartes, proposed that mind and brain are separate entities—an issue that is still discussed in psychology today. In later centuries, philosophers asked whether human character and knowledge are innate, or the results of environmental influences—an issue today that is called the Nature vs. Nurture Debate. The eventual emergence of psychology as a science hinge on advances in other sciences particularly, physiology. Physiology is a branch of biology that studies the functions and parts of living organisms, including humans. In the 1600’s, physiologists were becoming interested in the human brain and its relation to behavior. By the early 1700’s, it was discovered that damage to the one side of the brain produced a loss function in the opposite side of the body. By the early 1800s, the idea that different brain areas were related differently to behavioral functions was being vigorously debated. SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA © San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved WUNDT, TITCHENER, AND STRUCTURALISM By the late 1800s, the stage was set for the emergence of psychology as a separate scientific discipline. The leading proponent of this was a German physiologist named Wilhem Wundt. Wundt applied experimental methods to the study of fundamental psychological processes, such as mental reaction times in response to visual or auditory stimuli. Example: Wundt tried to measure precisely how long it took to consciously detect the sight and sound of a bell being struck. In 1874, Wundt published the first bona fide psychology textbook, Principles of Physiological Psychology in which he outlined the connections between physiology and psychology. It was Wundt’s most devoted student, Edward Titchener, who established Structuralism, the first major approach or “school” in psychology. Structuralism held that even our most complex conscious experiences can be broken down into elemental structures or component parts of sensation and feelings. To identify these structures of conscious thought, Wundt and Titchener conducted an experiment wherein subjects would view a simple stimulus, such an apple, then try to reconstruct their sensation and feelings immediately after viewing it. They might first report on the colors they saw, then the smells, and so on, to create a total description of their experience. This process is called Introspection. JAMES AND FUNCTIONALISM Psychology may officially begin in Germany in 1879, but it is already on its way being established in the United States through the efforts of Harvard Professor, William James. James’s idea became the basis for Functionalism an approach to psychology that differed from structuralism. Functionalism stressed the importance of how behavior functions to allow people and animals to adapt to their environment. The functionalist did not limit their methods to introspection. They expanded the scope of psychology research to include direct observation of living creatures in natural settings. Like the Structuralists, the functionalists thought that psychology should focus on conscious experiences. But rather than trying to identify the “fundamental” structures of consciousness. William James saw consciousness as an ongoing “stream” of mental activity. Thus, both the functionalist and structuralist saw the study of consciousness as the fundamental goal of the new science of psychology. However, they had very different ideas about how and why consciousness should be studied. WILLIAM JAMES AND HIS STUDENTS Two of James most notable students were G. Stanley Hall and Mary Whiton Calkins. SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA © San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved In 1878, G. Stanley Hall received the first Ph. D in psychology to be awarded in America. In the mid 1880’s, Hall founded the first psychology research laboratory in the United States. He also began publishing the American Journal of Psychology, the first U.S journal devoted to psychology. In 1890, Mary Whiton Calkins, under the directions of William James, she completed all the requirements for a Ph. D in psychology. Calkins had a distinguished professional career, establishing a psychology laboratory at Wellesley College and becoming the first woman president at the American Psychological Association. TWENTIETH CENTURY LEADERS IN PSYCHOLOGY Beginning in the early 1900’s new approaches emerged that challenged the principles of structuralism and functionalism. WATSON AND BEHAVIORISM The course of psychology changed dramatically in the early 1900s when an approach called behaviorism emerged as dominating force. Behaviorism rejected the emphasis on consciousness promoted by the structuralist and functionalists. Instead, behaviorism contended that psychology should focus its scientific investigations on observable behavior that could be objectively measured and verified. It grew out of the pioneering work of a Russian physiologist named Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov demonstrated that dogs could learn to associate a neutral stimulus such as the sound of the bell, with an automatic behavior such as salivating to food. Once the association was formed, the sound of the bell alone would make the dog salivate. Pavlov optimistically believed that he had discovered the mechanism by which all behaviors were learned. In the United States, Pavlov enthusiasm was shared by a young, dynamic psychologist named John Watson. Watson championed Behaviorism as a new school, or approach to psychology. Behaviorism both rejected introspection as a method and the idea that consciousness or mental processes should be studied by psychology. Instead of mental processes, the early behaviorists focused exclusively on overt behavior. Their goal was to discover the fundamental principles of learning, how behavior is acquired and modified in response to environmental influences. For most part, the behaviorists studied animal behavior under carefully controlled laboratory conditions. FREUD AND PSYCHOANALYSIS While Watson and other studied directly observable behavior, across the Atlantic Ocean, an Austrian physician named Sigmund Freud focused on uncovering causes of behavior that were unconscious—that is hidden from the person’s conscious awareness. Freud’s school of psychological thought was called Psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis emphasized the role of unconscious conflicts in determining behavior and personality. SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA © San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved Freud’s theories about personality and behavior were based largely on his work with his patients and on insights derived from self-analysis. Freud believed that human behavior was motivated by unconscious conflicts that were almost always sexual or aggressive in nature. Past experiences, especially childhood experiences, were thought to be critical in the formation of adult personality and behavior. According to Freud, glimpses of these unconscious impulses are revealed in everyday life in dreams, memory blocks, slips of the tongue, and spontaneous humor. Freud believed that when unconscious conflicts become extreme, psychological disorders can be the result. Many of the basic ideas of psychoanalysis continue to influence psychologists and other professionals in the mental health field. It also provided a landmark theory of personality. WERTHEIMER AND GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY Another influence on American Psychology was the school of Gestalt Psychology. Founded by Max Wertheimer in the early 1900s, Gestalt Psychology believed that the whole is more than the sum of its parts. Gestalt Psychology emphasized the perception of whole figures rather than individual elements of conscious experiences stressed by the structuralist. ROGERS, MASLOW, AND HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY In combination, behaviorism and psychoanalysis dominated research and practice in American psychology for several decades. However, in the 1950s, a new school of thought emerged, called Humanistic Psychology. Because humanistic psychology was distinctly different from both psychoanalysis and behaviorism, it was sometimes referred to as the “third force” in American psychology. Humanistic Psychology was largely founded by American Psychologist, Carl Rogers. Like Freud, Rogers was heavily influenced by his experiences with his psychotherapy clients. However, rather than emphasizing unconscious conflicts and causes of behavior, Rogers emphasized the conscious experiences of his patients, including each person’s unique potential for psychological growth and self-direction. In contrast to the behaviorist, who saw human behavior as being determined solely by environmental influences, Rogers emphasized self-determination, free will, and the importance of choice in human behavior. Abraham Maslow, another humanistic psychologist developed a theory of motivation that emphasized psychological growth. Like psychoanalysis, humanistic psychology included both influential theories of personality and a form of psychotherapy. FOUR (4) MAJOR PERSPECTIVE IN PSYCHOLOGY Biological Perspective. A psychologist might base behavior during stages of development through the influence of genetics or physical bases. Behavioral Perspective. A psychologist might focus on the environmental influences on behavior. SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA © San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved Cognitive Perspective. A psychologist might focus on the mental processes. Socio-Cultural Perspective. A psychologist might focus on the influence of culture on behavior. METHODS OF RESEARCH THE CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH Descriptive Research Research that is used to observe and describe behavior. It does not involve deliberate manipulation of variables rather; they are research strategies for observing and describing behavior. Using descriptive method, researchers can answer important questions, such as when certain behaviors take place, how often they occur, and whether they are related to other factor like person’s age, race, and educational level. It can provide a wealth of information about behavior, especially behaviors that would be difficult or impossible to study experimentally. Naturalistic Observation When psychologists systematically observe and record behaviors as they occur in their natural settings, they are using the descriptive method called the naturalistic observation. It can be used to study many different kinds of behavior and subjects, whether they are people or animals. The basic goal of naturalistic observation is to detect the behavior patterns that exist naturally—patterns that might not be apparent in laboratory or if the subjects knew they were being watched. Case Studies It is an intensive, in-depth investigation of an individual. Case studies are most often used to investigate rare, unusual, or extreme conditions. Nevertheless, it can provide psychologists with information that can be used to help understand normal behavior. It also involves compiling a great deal of information, often from a variety of different sources, to construct a detailed picture of a single subject. Example: The subject may be intensively interviewed, and his or her friends, family, and co-workers may be interviewed as well. Psychological records, medical records, and even school records may be examined. Other sources of information can include extensive psychological testing and observations of the person’s behavior. Survey A direct way to find out about the behavior or attitudes, and opinions of people is simply to ask them. Survey and questionnaires typically involve paper and pencil format in which the subjects respond to a structured set of questions about their experiences, beliefs, behavior, or attitudes. One key advantage offered by survey research is that researchers are able to gather information from a much larger group of people than could be obtained by other research methods. In survey, the researcher usually selects a sample—a segment of the larger group SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA © San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved or population. Selecting a sample that is representative of the larger group is the key to getting accurate survey results. How do researchers select the participants for the sample so that they end up with a sample that is representative of the larger group? The most common strategy is to randomly select the sample participants. Random Selection means that every member of the larger group has an equal chance of being selected for inclusion in the sample. Correlational Studies It shows how strongly two factors are related to one another. The statistical procedure we can use to calculate correlational studies is correlation coefficient. A correlation coefficient is a numerical indicator of how strongly related to factors seem to be. A correlation coefficient always falls in a range from -1.00 to +1.00. There are two parts to any correlation coefficient—the number and the sign. The number tells us about the strength of the relationship and the sign indicates the direction of the relationship between the two variables. More specifically, the closer a correlation coefficient is to 1.00, whether it is positive or negative, the stronger the correlation or association between two factors. Hence, a correlation of +80 or -.80 would represent a strong association, while a correlation of +.20 or -.20 would represent a weak correlation. Positive Correlation – two variables increase or decrease together. Negative Correlation – two variables move in opposite directions. Even if the two factors are very strongly correlated, correlation doesn’t indicate causation. All a correlation tells you is that two factors may be strongly co-vary in a systematic way. Although two factors are strongly correlated, different evidence is required to demonstrate a true cause and effect relationship. Experimental Research Experimental research is a study conducted with a scientific approach using two sets of variables. The first set acts as a constant, which you use to measure the differences of the second set. Quantitative research methods, for example, are experimental. Dependent Variable The factor that is observed and measured for change in an experiment; though to be influenced by the independent variable. Random Assignment Assigning subjects to experimental conditions in such a way that all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to any of the conditions or groups in the study. It is an important element of good experimental design. Randomly assigning subject ensures that differences among the subjects are spread out across all experimental conditions, random assignment helps ensure that the assignment of subjects is done in an unbiased manner. SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA © San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved Control Group The group of subjects who are exposed to all experimental conditions, including the independent variable. Placebo Control Group An experimental control group in which subjects are exposed to fake independent variable. Expectancy Effect Change in subject’s behavior produced by the subject’s belief that change should happen. BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY Experimental Psychology It focuses on research basic topics like sensory processes, principles of learning, emotion and motivation. However, note that experiments are used by psychologists in every area of psychology. Developmental Psychology It studies the physical, social and psychological changes that occur at different ages and stages over the lifespan, from conception to old age. Social Psychology It explores how people are affected by their natural environments, including how people think and influence others. Topics varied as conformity, obedience, persuasion, interpersonal attraction, helping behavior prejudice, and aggression are studied by social psychologists. Personality Psychology It examines individual differences and the characteristics that makes each person unique, including how those characteristics originated and developed. Health Psychology It focuses on the role of psychological factors in the development, prevention, and treatment of illness. Health psychology include areas like stress and coping, the relationship between psychological factors and health, patient/doctor relationships and ways of promoting health-enhancing behaviors. Educational Psychology It studies how people of all ages learn. Educational psychologists help develop the instructional methods and materials used to train people in both educational and work settings. A related field, school psychology focuses on designing programs that promote the intellectual, social, and emotional development of children, including those with special needs. Industrial/Organizational Psychology It is concerned with the relationship between people and work. This specialty includes such topics as workers productivity and job satisfaction, personnel selection and training, consumer reactions to a company’s products or services, and the interaction between people and equipment. Clinical Psychology It studies the causes, treatment, and prevention of different types of psychological disorders, such as debilitating anxiety or depression, eating disorders, and chronic substance abuse. A related specialty area is counseling psychology, which aims to improve everyday functioning by helping people solve problems in daily living and cope more effectively with challenging situations. SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA