Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology PDF

10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology Site: New Era University Vir...

10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology Site: New Era University Virtual Learning Environment Printed by: Jobee Lorraine P. Saspa Course: PSY411-18 - Educational Psychology (Elective) Date: Sunday, 13 October 2024, 6:08 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Book: Educational Psychology https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 1/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE Description This module will help students describe the importance of educational psychology theory and research for classroom practice and understand the different practices of the education in different settings. https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 2/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE Table of contents 1. Introduction/Overview 2. Learning Outcomes 3. A Brief History 4. What is Psychology? 5. Meaning and Perspectives in Educational Psychology 6. The Nature of Educational Psychology 7. More about Educational Psychology’s Scope 8. Objectives of Educational Psychology: 9. Research in Educational Psychology - Methods 9.1. Using Research to Understand and Improve Learning 9.2. WHAT’S THE EVIDENCE? QUANTITATIVE VERSUS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 9.3. TEACHERS AS RESEARCHERS 9.4. Different Approaches to Research Can Ask and Answer Different Questions. 10. Supporting Student Learning 11. Assignment 1 for Module 1 12. Assignment 2 for Module 1 13. Forum 1 for Module 1 14. Activity for Module 1 15. Source/Reference https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 3/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE 1. Introduction/Overview This module will help students describe the importance of educational psychology theory and research for classroom practice and understand the different practices of the education in different settings. https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 4/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE 2. Learning Outcomes At the end of the module, the student should be able to: 1. describe the importance of educational psychology theory and research for classroom practice. 2. manifest understanding to the different practices of the education in different settings by giving examples. 3. construct a framework that shows their comprehension as to the relationships of different areas of educational psychology. https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 5/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE 3. A Brief History According to the modern definition of psychology, mind can be analyzed functionally into different mental processes—cognitive, conative and emotive and is.expressed through behaviour of the interacting person. Hence psychology is a science of behaviour. Psychology emerged as a scientific discipline as and when Wilhelm Wundt—the founder of experimental psychology— established the first psychological laboratory at Leipzig in Germany in the year 1879. From that time onward the learned world witnessed a host of renowned psychologists working in different aspects of mental performances and a long intellectual pursuit of psychological discoveries ensured. This led more and more to the application of theories, branching, specialization, specification of methods as well as more and more qualitative and quantitative sophistication of techniques. One such branching encompasses the educational field and has been termed as Educational Psychology which emerged as a separate discipline, involving the general principles of experimental psychology applied in the field of education. A great name in the history of educational thoughts in the early 19th century was Pestalozzi who psychologised education by emphasizing upon ‘education’ as a process of drawing out the functional mind of the individual. The next great advance in educational psychology came about mid-nineteenth century when Johann Frederich Herbart, a German professor, formulated an approach to education based directly and avowedly upon psychology. From the end part of nineteenth century till the beginning of twentieth century a number of famous psychologists started working in different lines of education applying the principles and techniques of general psychology. Among them mention may be made of Francis Galton, the oldest of the founders of educational psychology. He conducted the first experimental investigation of associationism, tests on reaction time and sensory acuity. Stanley Hall, meanwhile, published his papers using the questionnaire to investigate the minds of children. In 1885, Ebbinghaus published his study on memory and, within the span of six years, events of importance like objective measurement, child psychology and learning experiments, all took place. To add to the list enriching the movement was Galton’s studies on nature-nurture problem, mental inheritance of ability, studies of twins, widespread realizations of individual differences in the psychological sense, various mental and physical developments as well as use of psychological tests and their statistical interpretation (particularly the correlational studies which was later followed by Karl Pearson), rating scales and questionnaires. “His most important theoretical contribution was the distinction in the ‘Structure of mind’ between a general broad ability of intelligence and special abilities entering only into narrower ranges of activity”. The next major contributor to the foundation of educational psychology was Alfred Binet in the field of intelligence testing. With assistance of Theophile Simon, he developed the first Binet Scale. Then comes John Dewey whose contribution is rather noteworthy in the field of educational philosophy than in the general psychological field. After Dewey, from the year 1900 to some ten or twelve years more, educational psychology remained more or less in incubation till Edward L. Thorndike came out with his revolutionary ‘laws of learning’. He was possibly the first man to be called an educational psychologist in the modern sense of the term. He studied the art and science of learning very systematically and consistently. Then joined Woodworth with Thorndike and together they worked on transfer of training at the turn of the century. Thorndike then published three volumes of Educational Psychology between 1913-14 consisting of his original work arising from experimental research. His studies in various related fields of education opened up new vistas to be trekked by later educational psychologists. Pls. watch this video https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 6/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 7/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE 4. What is Psychology? The word, ‘Psychology’ is derived from two Greek words, ‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’. Psyche means ‘soul’ and ‘Logos’ means ‘science’. Thus psychology was first defined as the ‘science of soul”. Psychology as the Science of Soul. In ancient days, the Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle interpreted Psychology as the science of the soul and studied it as a branch of Philosophy. But soul is something metaphysical. It cannot be seen, observed and touched and we cannot make scientific experiments on soul. Psychology as the Science of the Mind. It was the German philosopher Emmanuel Kant who defined Psychology as the science of the mind. William James (1892) defined psychology as the science of mental processes. But the word ‘mind’ is also quite ambiguous as there was confusion regarding the nature and functions of mind. Psychology as the Science of Consciousness. Modern psychologists defined psychology as the “Science of Consciousness”. James Sully (1884) defined psychology as the “Science of the Inner World”. Wilhelm Wundt (1892) defined psychology as the science which studies the “internal experiences’. But there are three levels of consciousness – conscious, subconscious and the unconscious and so this definition also was not accepted by some. Psychology as the Science of Behavior. At the beginning of the 20th century, when psychologists attempted to develop psychology into a pure science, it came to be defined as the science of behavior. The term behavior was popularized by J.B. Watson. Other exponents are William McDugall and W.B. Pillsbury. According to R.S. Woodworth, “First Psychology lost its soul, then it lost its mind, then lost its consciousness. It still has behavior of a sort. Definitions of Psychology B.F. Skinner defined, “Psychology is the science of behavior and experience.” Crow and Crow, “Psychology is the study of human behavior and human relationships.” William Mc Dougall, “Psychology is the science which aims to give us better understanding and control of the behavior of the organism as a whole.” Kurt Koffka, “Psychology is the scientific study of the behavior of living creatures in their contact with the outer world.” https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 8/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE 5. Meaning and Perspectives in Educational Psychology Educational psychology is one of the branches of psychology to study the behavior of the learner in relation to his education. As specialized branch of psychology concerns itself with suggesting ways and means of improving the process and products of education, enabling the teacher to teach effectively and the learners to learn effectively with the minimum effort. It is thus designated as the service of education. It has simplified the tasks and improved the efficiency of the teacher or all those connected in the process and products of education by supplying them with the essential knowledge and skills in much need the same way as science and technology has helped in making possible maximum output through minimum input in terms of time and labor in our day-to-day activities. Educational psychology is that branch of psychology which deals with the application of psychological findings in the field of education. In other words it deals with the human behavior in educational situations. It is the systematic study of the development of the individual in the educational settings. It is the scientific study of human behavior by which it can be understood, predicated and directed by education to achieve goals of life. Definitions of Educational Psychology Skinner: “Educational psychology is the branch of psychology which deals with teaching and learning”. Crow and Crow: “Educational psychology describes and explains learning experience of an individual from birth to old age”. E. A. Peel: “Educational psychology is the science of education”. Trow describes, “Educational psychology is the study of psychological aspects of educational situations”. Stephens says, “Educational psychology is the study of educational growth and development”. Judd describes educational psychology as, “a scientific study of the life stages in the development of an individual from the time he is born until he becomes an adult.” In the words of E.A. Peel, “Educational psychology helps the teacher to understand the development of his pupils, the range and limits of their capacities, the processes by which they learn and their social relationships.(In this way, the work of the Educational Psychologist resembles with that of an Engineer, who is a technical expert. The Engineer supplies all the knowledge and skill essential for the accomplishment of the job satisfactorily… for example, construction of a bridge.). In the same way Educational Psychologists, who is a technical expert in the field of Education, supplies all the information, principles and techniques essential for understanding the behavior of the pupil in response to educational environment and desired modification of his behavior to bring an all-round development of his personality. Thus, Educational Psychology concerned primarily with understanding the processes of teaching and learning that take place within formal environments and developing ways of improving those methods. It covers important topics like learning theories; teaching methods; motivation; cognitive, emotional, and moral development; and parent-child relationships etc. In short, it is the scientific discipline that addresses the questions: “Why do some students learn more than others?” and “What can be done to improve that learning?” PERSPECTIVES IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY As with other areas of psychology, researchers within educational psychology tend to take on different perspectives when considering a problem. These perspectives focus on specific factors that influence learning, including learned behaviors, cognition, experiences, and more. I. The Behavioral Perspective This perspective suggests that all behaviors are learned through conditioning. Psychologists who take this perspective rely firmly on the principles of operant conditioning to explain how learning happens. For example, teachers might reward learning by giving students tokens that can be exchanged for desirable items such as candy or toys. The behavioral perspective operates on the theory that students will learn when https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 9/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE rewarded for "good" behavior and punished for "bad" behavior. II. The Developmental Perspective This perspective focuses on how children acquire new skills and knowledge as they develop. Jean Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development is one example of an important developmental theory looking at how children grow intellectually. By understanding how children think at different stages of development, educational psychologists can better understand what children are capable of at each point of their growth. This can help educators create instructional methods and materials aimed at certain age groups. III. The Cognitive Perspective The cognitive approach has become much more widespread, mainly because it accounts for how factors such as memories, beliefs, emotions and motivations contribute to the learning process. This theory supports the idea that a person learns as a result of their own motivation, not as a result of external rewards. Cognitive psychology aims to understand how people think, learn, remember, and process information. Educational psychologists who take a cognitive perspective are interested in understanding how children become motivated to learn, how they remember the things that they learn, and how they solve problems. IV. Experiential Perspective This perspective emphasizes that a person's own life experiences influence how they understand new information. This method is similar to constructivist and cognitive perspectives in that it takes into consideration the experiences, thoughts, and feelings of the learner. This method allows someone to find personal meaning in what they learn instead of feeling that the information doesn't apply to them V. The Constructivist Approach This perspective focuses on how we actively construct our knowledge of the world. Constructivism accounts for the social and cultural influences that affect how we learn. Those who take the constructivist approach believe that what a person already knows is the biggest influence on how they learn new information. This means that new knowledge can only be added on to and understood in terms of existing knowledge. This perspective is heavily influenced by the work of psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who proposed ideas such as the zone of proximal development and instructional scaffolding. Zone of proximal development Instructional scaffolding. https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 10/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 11/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE 6. The Nature of Educational Psychology Its nature is scientific as it has been accepted that it is a Science of Education. We can summarize the nature of Educational Psychology in the following ways: 1. Educational Psychology is a science. (Science is a branch of study concerned with observation of facts and establishment of verifiable general laws. Science employs certain objective methods for the collection of data. It has its objectives of understanding, explaining, predicting and control of facts.) Like any other science, educational psychology has also developed objective methods of collection of data. It also aims at understanding, predicting and controlling human behavior. 2. Educational Psychology is a natural science. An educational psychologist conducts his investigations, gathers his data and reaches his conclusions in exactly the same manner as physicist or the biologist. 3. Educational psychology is a social science. Like the sociologist, anthropologist, economist or political scientist, the educational psychologist studies human beings and their sociability. 4. Educational psychology is a positive science. Normative science like Logic or Ethics deals with facts as they ought to be. A positive science deals with facts as they are or as they operate. Educational psychology studies the child’s behavior as it is, not, as it ought to be. So it is a positive science. 5. Educational psychology is an applied science. It is the application of psychological principles in the field of education. By applying the principles and techniques of psychology, it tries to study the behavior and experiences of the pupils. As a branch of psychology it is parallel to any other applied psychology. For example, educational psychology draws heavily facts from such areas as developmental psychology, clinical psychology, abnormal psychology and social psychology. 6. Educational psychology is a developing or growing science. It is concerned with new and ever new researches. As research findings accumulate, educational psychologists get better insight into the child’s nature and behavior. Thus, educational psychology is an applied, positive, social, specific and practical science. While general science deals with behavior of the individuals in various spheres, educational psychology studies the behavior of the individual in educational sphere only. Nature of Educational psychology as scientific because: The nature of educational psychology is regarded as scientific because it is organized, systematic and universally accepted body, wherein the facts remain constantly in search of truth through research and experimentation. Employs scientific methods in its study and its results are subjected to further verification and modification. 1. Laws of educational psychology are universal: Educational psychology possesses a well-organized, systematic and universally accepted body of facts supported by the relevant psychological laws and principles. 2. Scientific methods: Educational psychology employs scientific methods and adopts a scientific approach for studying the learner’s behavior such as observation, experimentation, clinical investigation and generalization, etc. 3. Constant search of the truth: The results of any study in educational psychology can be challenged and are modified or altered in terms of the latest explanations and findings. So the findings of any study are never taken as absolute and permanent. 4. Reliability: Educational psychology does not accept hearsay and not take anything for granted. It emphasizes that essentially there is some definite causes linked with a behavior and the causes of this behavior are not related to supernatural phenomena. 5. Positive science: Educational psychology is a positive science rather than a normative science. 6. Applied behavioral science: Educational psychology is an applied/behavioral science. 7. Developing positive science: Educational psychology cannot claim the status of a developed positive science like other natural or applied sciences. It is considered as one of the developing positive sciences of the learner’s behavior. https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 12/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE 7. More about Educational Psychology’s Scope Educational psychology embraced over the years various fields of education e.g. intelligence testing, mental abilities, achievement testing, child psychology, developmental psychology, school performance, mental deficiency, curriculum, personality, character, educational measurement and so on and so forth. In 1910, the Journal of Educational Psychology was first published, to reveal experimental researches on various psychological issues regarding education and their interpretations. In the recent past the field of educational psychology has become more complex as the vision of what it encompasses has broadened. Originally concerned with learning and measurement its scope has been extended with each succeeding generation to the point where now the newest extension is in social-educational field and a new branch emerged in educational psychology known as educational social psychology. In conclusion, we may note that the aim of educational psychology is to apply psychological concepts and principles in order to improve educational practice. Educational psychology that has evolved as a new discipline tends to represent all the areas within psychology in general. These include some distinct areas dealing with human development, individual difference in ability, aptitude and temperament, perception, motivation, learning, thinking, problem-solving, psychopathology, the dynamics of personality and group interactional processes. The educational scientists have employed two strategies for applying psychology in education. Consequently, two kinds of researches had been advanced in the field of educational psychology; the first is the direct experimental investigation of learning in laboratory and school settings. The second has been an attempt to distil from basic psychological research the educational proceedings to be employed in teaching-learning situation, implication of learning in its broader perspective (formal and informal learning), and also human nature and its interactions. In this process educational psychology deals not only with the individual’s own psychology and its functioning, but also an awareness of his interacting counterpart, the changing environment—both physical and social. Any educational endeavour is actually a learning situation; the task of educational psychology is to study the learner in that situation. The first learning situation outside the family a child (or a learner) encounters is the school, which is again teaching-learning condition oriented. The teacher’s duty in this setting is to apply the general propositions received from psychology and apply them in the classroom. But not one single strategy employed so far had yielded any fruitful result. A more practical oriented strategy is required in order to synthesize the learner, the teacher the instructional techniques and the educational managers on the one hand and producing qualified students to meet the demand of the day, on the other. The world we live in today is shaped to a considerable degree by the decisions people make— individually and collectively. Any decision- making needs possessing some knowledge and use them in solving problems. In other words, the kind of perceiving, thinking and evaluating that goes into the problem solving has to be considered. Historically, possession of knowledge and its utilization are learned during the developmental years of the children through interacting with parents, employers, religious and political leaders as well as teachers in the classroom. The interaction with the teachers is no less important in the process of our lifelong learning even if the exposure to school be brief and transitory (this is stated considering the number of dropouts at the school level in our country). It has an impact in their lives, nevertheless. Specially in the developing countries like India and South Asia the involvement of young people with teachers and schools is certainly increasing as revealed by survey reports at Governmental level for the last two decades. Teachers do play an active role in the teachinglearning system. It will not be unreasonable to say that the kind of future we and our children will experience is influenced more by teachers than by any other professional groups. The world of tomorrow will be shaped not only by what today’s children are learning from their teachers, but also by the ‘way’ they are learning it, for it is the way knowledge is presented that determines how children will learn to solve problems. Thus according to Lindgren (1980), the ‘how’ of teaching includes not only teaching methods, but also teachers’ attitudes and values, and full range of teachers’ classroom behaviours. https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 13/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE They serve as ‘models’ whose way of thinking, behaving, attitudes, advice and manner, the process of acquiring and imparting knowledge are imitated in more ways than they can 16 Educational Psychology imagine. Hence they are influential far beyond their immediate awareness. Therefore, it is necessary that the teachers know consciously their personal psychology in order to understand the psychology of their students. https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 14/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE 8. Objectives of Educational Psychology: The general objectives of educational psychology are: 1. To provide a body of facts and methods which can be used in solving teaching problems. 2. To develop a scientific and problem-solving attitude. 3. To train in thinking psychologically about educational problems. Teaching Objectives of Educational Psychology: 1. To develop an understanding and appreciation of the dietary and environmental factors which underline learning ability. 2. To provide base for understanding the nature and principles of learning and to supply the techniques for its improvement. 3. To understand and appreciated factors influencing individual ability to learn. 4. To provide understanding of the external factors like training aids, libraries, classrooms which are largely within the control of the teacher and the institution. 5. To evaluate teaching efficiency. 6. To develop an appreciation of the individual and importance of the individual with their individual differences. Scope of Educational Psychology: Scope of educational psychology tells us the areas of application. In other words, it can be called the subject matter of educational psychology. 1. Human Behaviour. It studies human behaviour in the educational context. Psychology is the study of behaviour and education aims at modification of behaviour. Hence the influence of Educational Psychology has to be reflected in all aspects of education. 2. Growth and development. It studies the principles governing growth and development. The insight provided by the study will help in scientifically planning and executing learner oriented programmes of education. 3. The Learner. The subject-matter of educational psychology is knitted around the learner. Therefore, the need of knowing the learner and the techniques of knowing him well. The topics include – the innate abilities and capacities of the individuals, individual differences and their measurements, the overt, covert, conscious as well as unconscious behaviour of the learner, the characteristics of his growth and development and each stage beginning from childhood to adulthood. 4. The Learning Experiences. Educational Psychology helps in deciding what learning experiences are desirable, at what stage of the growth and development of the learner, so that these experiences can be acquired with a greater ease and satisfaction. 5. Learning process: After knowing the learner and deciding what learning experiences are to be provided, Educational Psychology moves on to the laws, principles and theories of learning. Other items in the learning process are remembering and forgetting, perceiving, concept formation, thinking and reasoning, problem solving, transfer of learning, ways and means of effective learning etc. 6. Learning Situation or Environment. Here we deal with the environmental factors and learning situations which come midway between the learner and the teacher. Topics like classroom climate and group dynamics, techniques and aids that facilitate learning and evaluation, techniques and practices, guidance and counselling etc. For the smooth functioning of the teaching-learning process. 7. Evaluation of learning process: Some forms of evaluation inevitable in teaching. Also in all fields of activity when judgments used to be made, evaluation plays an important role. Even when we want to cross a road we make a judgment whether it is safe to cross the road. Effectiveness of learning process always depends on the evaluation as it gives the knowledge of result which helps the learner as well as the teacher to modify or correct oneself. Educational psychology guides are by explaining the different methods of assessment contributing to the effectiveness of learning process. Knowing the learner, acquiring the essential skill in teaching and evaluation are the focal points in the study of educational psychology. 8. Individual differences. It is universally accepted that every individual differs from every other individual. This idea has been brought to light by Educational Psychology. 9. Personality and adjustment. Education has been defined as the all-round development of the personality of an individual. If educational has to fulfil this function all instructional programmes have to be based on the principles governing the nature and development of personality. https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 15/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE 10. The Teacher: The teacher is a potent force is any scheme of teaching and learning process. It discusses the role of the teacher. It emphasizes the need of ‘knowing thyself’ for a teacher to play his role properly in the process of education. His conflicts, motivation. Anxiety, adjustment, level of aspiration etc. It throws light on the essential personality traits, interests, aptitudes, the characteristics of effective teaching etc. so as to inspire him for becoming a successful teacher. 11. Guidance and Counselling. Education is nothing by providing guidance and counselling required for the proper development of the child. This is very true, especially in the light of the extremely complex and problematic situation one has to face in the fast growing world. Educational psychology has come to the rescue by developing principles and practical measures helpful for providing effective guidance and counselling. We can conclude by saying that Educational Psychology is narrower in scope than general psychology. While general psychology deals with the behaviour of the individual in a general way, educational psychology in concerned with the behaviour of the learner in an educational setting. https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 16/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE 9. Research in Educational Psychology - Methods Educational psychology like any other science, makes use of scientific methods in collecting data about learner, learning process and evaluation. 1. To get facts about learning behaviour rather than opinions. 2. To get good information so that the learner can be guided. Educational psychology as a science of education deals with the problems of teaching and learning and helps the teacher in his task of modifying the learners behaviour and bringing about an all-round development of his personality. Therefore, while in psychology the scope of study and the field of operation are extended to cover the behaviour of all living organisms related to all their life activities in educational psychology, the scope of such behavioural study is limited within the confines of the teaching, learning processes, i.e. studying the behaviour of the learners in relation to their educational environment and the all-round development of their personality. Thus the subject of educational psychology must be centred around the process of teaching and learning for enabling the teacher and learner to do their jobs as satisfactory as possible. Thus educational psychology definitely covers the topics helpful in suggesting principles and techniques for the selection of the learning experience appropriate to each developmental stage of the childhood. Hence it includes the study of the behavior of the learner in the educational environment. It also includes the topics and content which are specifically meant for improving the process and products of education mainly centred around the teaching learning process. Therefore, this study includes: 1. In knowing the learner. 2. Enabling the teacher to know their self-strengths, limitations and to acquire essential teaching skills. 3. Selection and organization of proper learning. 4. Experiences suited to the individuality and developmental stages of the learner. 5. Suggesting suitable methods and techniques for providing the desired learning experience. 6. In arranging proper learner situation. Methods of Educational Psychology: Educational psychology is the scientific or systematic study of the behaviour of the learner in relation to his educational environment. This behaviour can be studied by a simple approach called observation. However, this observation method has to be adjusted depending upon the conditions in which observations have to be made, the procedure and tools adopted. The following are the various methods of observation under different situations: 1. Introspection method: This method which is the oldest method of studying behaviour where the learner should make a self-observation, i.e. looking inwards. For example, when a person is angry he may be asked to determine how he felt during that period of anger by his own observation. This method is simple, direct, cheap and reveals one’s behaviour. But this method lacks reliability and can be used only for adult normal human beings. This method requires the support of other methods which are more reliable. 2. Observation method: In this method the learner’s behaviour is observed under natural conditions by other individuals. Such observation will be interpreted according to the perception of the observer. This helps to find out behaviour by observing a person’s external behaviour. For example, if a person frowns we can say that he is angry. But when we are studying behaviour in natural conditions we have to wait for the event to take place. This method is helpful in studying the behaviour of the children. However, this method will explain only observed behaviour, subjectivity of the investigation may affect the results. https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 17/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE 3. Experimental method: In this method, behaviour is observed and recorded under controlled conditions. This is done in psychological laboratory or in classrooms or outside the classrooms in certain physical or social environment. Accordingly the cause and effect relationships are established. Theories of behaviour can be developed. These experiments require the creation of artificial environment. Therefore, the scope is limited. Human behaviour is very dynamic and unpredictable. This method is also costly and time consuming. 4. Case history method: This method is one of the steps used in the clinical method ofstudying behaviour. This method is used for those who are suffering from physical or mental disorders. For this, the case history has to be made of the earlier experiences of the individual which may be responsible for the present behaviour. Information is also collected from his parents, family, relatives, guardians, neighbours, friends, teachers, and from reports about the individual’s past. This information will enable the clinical psychologists to diagnose and suggest treatment if there is any problem. However, this method will be successful only if the clinical researcher is technically efficient. The findings are limited to the individuals observed and the findings cannot be generalized. Relationship Between Education and Psychology Watch a short video using this link: Psychology is closely related to education. Education is the modification of behaviour in a desirable direction or in a controlled environment and psychology is the study of behaviour or science of behaviour. To modify the behaviour or to bring about some changes in the behaviour it is necessary to study the science of behaviour. Thus, education and psychology are logically related. The developmental stages of children and characteristics are very essential factors which the teacher must know in order to be a successful teacher. The traditional education was subject centred and teacher dominated. But the modern concept of education has been changed into learning centred to learner centred. Today’s education has become child centered: It is the child who is to learn according to his needs, interests and capacities. Hence, there is no doubt that a knowledge of psychology is quite essential for planning and organizing any educative effort. For this purpose all the great educators emphasize that education must have a psychological base. Pestalozzi tried to psychologies education. Montessori and Froebel also advocated that education must be based on psychological principles. Almost all the aspects of education are guided by psychological principles. https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 18/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE Different aspects of education related to psychological principles are as follows: 1. The objectives of education at different stages have a psychological base. 2. Preparation of curriculum for different stages as per the age, ability and capacities of the learner must be based on some of the psychological principles. 3. The teacher employs some of the suitable methods of teaching, appropriate motivational techniques and teaching devices which are also the contributions of educational psychology. 4. Solution of different educational problems through research are also the contribution. 5. Preparation of school time table and timing have also a psychological base. 6. Effective school administration and organization needs a knowledge of psychology. 7. Knowledge of psychology is necessary to study the gifted or the retarded child, the problem child and the maladjusted child. 8. The problem of discipline in the school can be tackled psychologically. 9. Educational psychology provides knowledge about mental health of the teacher. 10. Psychology provides knowledge about evaluation procedure for better learning in the school. 11. Better guidance can be provided for effective learning by studying the psychological traits of the learner. Besides the above, better students participation in classroom teaching, individualized instruction, group activity, learning by doing etc. has a psychological base. So, we cannot think of education without psychology in modern education scenario. https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 19/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE 9.1. Using Research to Understand and Improve Learning CORRELATION STUDIES. Often, the results of descriptive studies include reports of correlations. You will encounter many correlations in the coming chapters, so let’s take a minute to examine this concept. A correlation is a number that indicates both the strength and the direction of a relationship between two events or measurements. Correlations range from +1.00 to –1.00. The closer the correlation is to either +1.00 or –1.00, the stronger the relationship. For example, the correlation between adult weight and height is about.70 (a strong relationship); the correlation between adult weight and number of languages spoken is about.00 (no relationship at all). The sign of the correlation tells the direction of the relationship. A positive correlation indicates that the two factors increase or decrease together. As one gets larger, so does the other. Weight and height are positively correlated because greater weight tends to be associated with greater height. A negative correlation means that increases in one factor are related to decreases in the other, for example, the less you pay for a theater or concert ticket, the greater your distance from the stage. It is important to note that correlations do not prove cause and effect. For example, weight and height are correlated—but gaining weight obviously does not cause you to grow taller. Knowing a person’s weight simply allows you to make a general prediction about that person’s height. Educational psychologists identify correlations so they can make predictions about important events in the classroom. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES. A second type of research—experimentation—allows educational psychologists to go beyond predictions and actually study cause and effect. Instead of just observing and describing an existing situation, the investigators introduce changes and note the results. First, a number of comparable groups of participants are created. In psychological research, the term participants (also called subjects) generally refers to the people being studied—such as teachers or ninth graders. One common way to make sure that groups of participants are essentially the same is to assign each person to a group using a random procedure. Random means each participant has an equal chance of being in any group. Quasi-experimental studies meet most of the criteria for true experiments, with the important exception that the participants are not assigned to groups at random. Instead, existing groups such as classes or schools participate in the experiments. In experiments or quasi-experiments, for one or more of the groups studied, the experimenters change some aspect of the situation to see if this change or “treatment” has an expected effect. The results in each group are then compared, often using statistics. When differences are described as statistically significant, it means that they probably did not happen simply by chance. For example, if you see p <.05 in a study, this indicates that the result reported could happen by chance less than 5 times out of 100, and p <.01 means less than 1 time in 100. A number of the studies we will examine attempt to identify cause-and-effect relationships by asking questions such as this: If some teachers receive training in how to teach spelling using word parts (cause), will their students become better spellers than students whose teachers did not receive training (effect)? This actually was a field experiment because it took place in real classrooms and not in a simulated laboratory situation. In addition, it was a quasi-experiment because the students were in existing classes and had not been randomly assigned to teachers, so we cannot be certain the experimental and control groups were the same before the teachers received their training. The researchers handled this by looking at improvement in spelling, not just final achievement level, and the results showed that the training worked (Hurry et al., 2005). ABAB EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS. The goal of ABAB designs is to determine the effects of a therapy, teaching method, or other intervention by first observing the participants for a baseline period (A) and assess the behavior of interest; then trying an intervention (B) and noting the results; then removing the intervention and go back to baseline conditions (A); and finally reinstating the intervention (B). This form of design can help establish a cause-and-effect relationship (Plavnick & Ferreri, 2013). For example, a teacher might record how much time students are out of their seats without permission during a weeklong baseline period (A). The teacher then tries ignoring those who are out of their seats, but praises those who are seated, again recording how many are wandering out of their seats for the week (B). Next, the teacher returns to baseline conditions (A) and records results, and then reinstates the praise-and-ignore strategy (B). When this intervention was first tested, the praise-and-ignore strategy proved effective in increasing the time students spent in their seats (C. H. Madsen, Becker, Thomas, Koser, & Plager, 1968). CLINICAL INTERVIEWS AND CASE STUDIES. Jean Piaget pioneered an approach called the clinical interview to understand children’s thinking. The clinical interview uses open-ended questioning to probe responses and to follow up on answers. Questions go wherever the child’s responses lead. Here is an example of a clinical interview with a 7-year-old. Piaget is trying to understand the child’s thinking about lies and truth, so he asks, “What is a lie?” https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 20/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE What is a lie?—What isn’t true. What they say that they haven’t done.—Guess how old I am.—Twenty. No, I’m thirty.—Was that a lie you told me?—I didn’t do it on purpose.— I know. But is it a lie all the same, or not?—Yes, it is the same, because I didn’t say how old you were.—Is it a lie?—Yes, because I didn’t speak the truth.—Ought you be punished?—No.—Was it naughty or not naughty?—Not so naughty.—Why?—Because I spoke the truth afterwards! (Piaget, 1965, p. 144)how old you were.—Is it a lie?—Yes, because I didn’t speak the truth.—Ought you be punished?—No.—Was it naughty or not naughty?—Not so naughty.—Why?—Because I spoke the truth afterwards! (Piaget, 1965, p. 144) Researchers also may employ case studies. A case study investigates one person or situation in depth. For example, Benjamin Bloom and his colleagues conducted in-depth studies of highly accomplished concert pianists, sculptors, Olympic swimmers, tennis players, mathematicians, and neurologists to try to understand what factors supported the development of outstanding talent. The researchers interviewed family members, teachers, friends, and coaches to build an extensive case study of each of these highly accomplished individuals (B. S. Bloom et al., 1985). Some educators recommend case study methods to identify students for gifted programs because the information gathered is richer than just test scores. ETHNOGRAPHY. Ethnographic methods, borrowed from anthropology, involve studying the naturally occurring events in the life of a group to understand the meaning of these events to the people involved. In educational psychology research, ethnographies might study how students from different cultural groups are viewed by their peers or how teachers’ beliefs about students’ abilities affect classroom interactions. In some studies the researcher uses participant observation, actually participating in the group, to understand the actions from the perspectives of the people in the situation. Teachers can do their own informal ethnographies to understand life in their classrooms. THE ROLE OF TIME IN RESEARCH. Many things that psychologists want to study, such as cognitive development (Chapter 2), happen over several months or years. Ideally, researchers would study the development by observing their subjects over many years as changes occur. These are called longitudinal studies. They are informative, but time-consuming, expensive, and not always practical: Keeping up with participants over a number of years as they grow up and move can be impossible. As a consequence, much research is cross-sectional, focusing on groups of students at different ages. For example, to study how children’s conceptions of numbers change from ages 3 to 16, researchers can interview children of several different ages, rather than following the same children for 14 years. Longitudinal studies and cross-sectional research examine change over long periods of time. The goal of micro genetic studies is to intensively study cognitive processes while the change is actually occurring. For example, researchers might analyze how children learn a particular strategy for adding two-digit numbers over the course of several weeks. The micro genetic approach has three basic characteristics: The researchers (a) observe the entire period of the change—from when it starts to the time it is relatively stable; (b) make many observations, often using video recordings, interviews, and transcriptions of the exact words of the individuals being studied; and (c) put the observed behavior “under a microscope,” that is, they examine it moment by moment or trial by trial. The goal is to explain the underlying mechanisms of change—for example, what new knowledge or skills are developing to allow change to take place. This kind of research is expensive and time-consuming, so often only one or two children are studied. https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 21/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE 9.2. WHAT’S THE EVIDENCE? QUANTITATIVE VERSUS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH There is a distinction you will encounter in your journey through educational psychology: the contrast between qualitative research and quantitative research. These are large categories, and like many categories, a bit fuzzy at the edges, but here are some simplified differences. Qualitative Research. Case studies and ethnographies are examples of qualitative research. This type of research uses words, dialogue, events, themes, and images as data. Interviews, observations, and analysis of transcripts are key procedures. The goal is to explore specific situations or people in depth and to understand the meaning of the events to the people involved in order to tell their story. Qualitative researchers assume that no process of understanding meaning can be completely objective. They are more interested in interpreting subjective, personal, or socially constructed meanings. Quantitative Research. Both correlational and experimental types of research generally are quantitative because measurements are taken and computations are made. Quantitative research uses numbers, measurement, and statistics to assess levels or sizes of relationships among variables or differences between groups. Quantitative researchers try to be as objective as possible in order to remove their own biases from their results. One advantage of good quantitative research is that results from one study can be generalized or applied to other similar situations or people. MIXED METHODS RESEARCH. Many researchers now are using mixed methods or complementary methods to study questions both broadly and deeply. These research designs are procedures for “collecting, analyzing, and ‘mixing’ both quantitative and qualitative methods in a single study or series of studies to understand a research problem” (Creswell, 2015, p. 537). There are three basic ways of combining methods. First, a researcher collects both quantitative and qualitative data at the same time, then merges and integrates the data in the analyses. In the second approach, the researcher collects quantitative data first, for example, from surveys or observation instruments, and then follows this by performing in-depth qualitative interviews of selected participants. Often the goal here is to explain or look for causes. Finally, the sequence can be reversed—the researcher first conducts interviews or case studies to identify research questions, then collects quantitative data as guided by the qualitative findings. Here the goal may be to explore a situation deeply (Creswell, 2015). Mixed methods research is becoming more common in educational psychology. SCIENTIFICALLY BASED RESEARCH AND EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICES. A requirement of the landmark 2002 NCLB Act was that educational programs and practices receiving federal money had to be consistent with “scientifically based research,” that is, rigorous systematic research that gathers valid and reliable data and analyzes those data with appropriate statistical methods. The 2015 Every Student Succeeds Act that replaced NCLB also requires “evidence-based” interventions in failing schools—strategies grounded in rigorous scientifically based research. For example, the U.S. Institute of Education Sciences (IES) provides a series of Practice Guides that contain recommendations from experts about various challenges educators face—guides to action based on strong evidence from research Scientifically based research and evidence-based practices fit the quantitative experimental approach described earlier better than qualitative methods such as ethnographic research or case studies, but there is continuing debate about what this means, as you will see in the Point/Counterpoint on the next page. In the final analysis, the methods used—quantitative, qualitative, or a mixture of both—should fit the questions asked. Different approaches to research can ask different questions and provide different kinds of answers, as you can see in Table 1.3, on page 49. https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 22/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE 9.3. TEACHERS AS RESEARCHERS Research also can be a way to improve teaching in one classroom or one school. The same kind of careful observation, intervention, data gathering, and analysis that occurs in large research projects can be applied in any classroom to answer questions such as “Which writing prompts seem to encourage the most creative writing in my class?” “When does Kenyon seem to have the greatest difficulty concentrating on academic tasks?” “Would assigning task roles in science groups lead to more equitable participation of girls and boys in the work?” This kind of problem-solving investigation is called action research. By focusing on a specific problem and making careful observations, teachers can learn a great deal about both their teaching and their students. You can find reports of the findings from all types of studies in journals that are referenced in this book. For years I was editor of the Theory Into Practice journal (tip.ehe.osu.edu). I think this is a terrific journal to inspire and guide action research in classrooms. For a great overview of the past 50 years in educational research and practice, see the Special 50th Anniversary issue of Theory Into Practice (Gaskill, 2013). https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 23/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE 9.4. Different Approaches to Research Can Ask and Answer Different Questions. RESEARCH METHOD PURPOSES/QUESTIONS ADDRESSED EXAMPLE Correlational To assess the strength Is the average amount of and direction of the relation homework completed weekly between two variables; related to student performance to make predictions. on unit tests? If so, is the relation positive or negative? Experimental To identify cause-and- Will giving more homework effect relations; to test cause students to learn more in possible explanations for science class? effects. ABAB Experiment To identify the effects of When students record the a treatment or number of pages they read each intervention for one or more night, will they read more pages? individuals. If they stop recording, will their amount of reading return to the previous levels? Case Studies To understand one or a How does one boy make the few individuals or situations transition from a small rural in depth. elementary school to a large middle school? What are his main problems, concerns, issues, accomplishments, fears, supports, etc.? Ethnography To understand How do new teachers make experiences from the sense of the norms, participants’ point of view: expectations, and culture of their What is their meaning? new school, and how do they respond? Mixed Methods To ask complex questions Based on a study of 20 involving causes, meanings, classrooms using quantitative and relations observational instruments, select among variables; to pursue the 5 classes with the fewest both depth and breadth behavior problems and the 5 with in research questions. the most problems late in the year. Next interview those teachers and their students and analyze videotapes made the first weeks of school to answer the question: Did the effective and ineffective teachers differ in how they established rules and procedures in their classes? https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 24/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE 10. Supporting Student Learning In an article in the Educational Psychologist, a major journal in our field, Jihyun Lee and Valerie Shute (2010) reported sifting through thousands of studies of student learning conducted over the course of 60 years, seeking to identify those that had direct measures of student achievement in reading and mathematics. Then they narrowed their focus to studies with strong effects. About 150 studies met all their rigorous criteria. Using the results from these studies, Lee and Shute identified about a dozen variables that were directly linked to K–12 student achievement. The researchers grouped these factors into two categories: student personal factors and school and social-contextual factors, as you can see in table below. As you can see in table, this text should help you become a capable and confdent teacher who can get students engaged in the classroom learning community —a community that respects its members. This will guide you toward becoming a teacher who helps students develop into interested, motivated, self- regulated, and confdent learners. As a consequence, you will be able to set high expectations for your students, rally the support of parents, and build your own sense of efficacy as a teacher. STUDENT PERSONAL EXAMPLES FACTORS Student Engagement Engaging Students’ Behavior Make sure students attend classes, follow rules, and participate in school activities. Engaging Students’ Design challenging tasks, tap intrinsic Minds and motivation, support student investment in Motivations learning, and nurture student self-efficacy and other positive academic beliefs. Engaging Students’ Emotions Connect to student interest, pique curiosity, foster a sense of belonging and class connections, diminish anxiety, and increase enjoyment in learning. Learning Strategies Cognitive Strategies Directly teach knowledge and skills that support student learning and deep processing of valuable information (e.g., summarizing, inferring, applying, and reasoning). Metacognitive Strategies Directly teach students to monitor, regulate, and evaluate their own cognitive processes, strengths, and weaknesses as learners; teach them about when, where, why, and how to use specific strategies. Behavioral Strategies Directly teach students strategies and tactics for managing, monitoring, and evaluating their action, motivation, affect, and environment, such as skills in: time management test taking help seeking note taking homework management SOCIAL-CONTEXTUAL EXAMPLES FACTORS School Climate Academic Emphasis Set high expectations for your students, and encourage the whole school to do the same; emphasize positive relations with the school community. Teacher Variables If possible, teach in a school with the positive qualities of collective efficacy, teacher empowerment, and sense of affiliation. Principal Leadership If possible, teach in a school with the positive qualities of collegiality, high morale, and clearly conveyed goals. Social-Familial Influences Parental Involvement Support parents in supporting their children’s learning https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 25/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE Peer Influences Create class and school norms that honor achievement, encourage peer support, and discourage peer conflict. https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 26/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE 11. Assignment 1 for Module 1 EDUCATION VS. SCHOOLING Even though schooling is frequently misidentified as education, there is much difference between education and schooling. The term education encompasses basically two meanings. They are formal and informal ways of gaining knowledge while schooling stands for the initial and secondary stage of formal education system that take place in school. Education as mentioned above can take place not only through informal ways such as learning from peers, life experiences, by reading or learning things through online sources but also through formal means. For instance, through educational institutions like school, university or even training colleges. Thus, it becomes clear schooling is one branch of formal education in the wide arena of education From the comparison given above about education and school, make a Venn Diagram that shows the difference and similarities of these two concepts and processes. To submit your answer, click the link below: (You are only allowed to attach document in PDF format) https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/assign/view.php?id=112689 https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 27/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE 12. Assignment 2 for Module 1 To measure the level of your understanding on the topic "The Nature of Educational Psychology", make or construct a graphic organizer, mind map, or framework that shows the interrelationships of these variables that discusses educational psychology as a science. Explain the framework, organizer, or mind map in simple way. Note: Only document attachment in a PDF format is allowed. To submit your assignment, click the link below: https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/assign/view.php?id=112690 https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 28/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE 13. Forum 1 for Module 1 Share you thoughts and ideas on the following questions: 1. Why educational psychology as a course/subject has to be taken by a psychology student like you? Just a brief and concise answer is highly appreciated. 2. If you are given an opportunity to become a teacher in the future, what kind of teacher you will be and how will you apply some concepts you studied and learned from this module? To answer this forum, click the link below: (Attachment must be in a PDF format) https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/forum/view.php?id=112696 https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 29/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE 14. Activity for Module 1 Instructions: Search an example of a research paper related to educational psychology. Do the following: 1. READ and attached to your assignment the abstract or the full paper (be minded of the length) 2. Answer the following questions: 2.1 What is the purpose of the research paper you have read? 2.2 What are the characteristics of an educational psychology research methods and objectives present in that sample research paper? Note: Submit your output in a PDF format. To submit your assignment, click the link below: https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/assign/view.php?id=112704 https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 30/31 10/13/24, 6:13 AM Introduction to Educational Psychology and Research in Educational Psychology | NEUVLE 15. Source/Reference Courtesy of: http://aditi.du.ac.in/uploads/econtent/ Woolfolk, Anita (2019), Educational Psychology, 14th Edition, Pearson Education. https://college2425.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=112675 31/31