Classical Conditioning & Learning Psychology Notes PDF

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Learning: relatively enduring change in behaviour due to experience \- approaching the gym energizes u before u begin Behaviourism: we learn from experience Pavlov: reflexive responses associate with cues Watson: interaction of environment and associated effects Skinner:...

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Learning: relatively enduring change in behaviour due to experience \- approaching the gym energizes u before u begin Behaviourism: we learn from experience Pavlov: reflexive responses associate with cues Watson: interaction of environment and associated effects Skinner: prediction and control of behaviour Non associative learning: Info about one external stimulus \- habituation: decrease in behavioural responding to a repeated stimulus \- Noises in noisy neighborhood prevent sleep at first but then u can ignore external stimulus sensitization: increase in behavioural responding to repeated stimulus If u have an allergy, more exposure to pollen Will create an increased response Associative learning: how 2 or more pieces of information are related \- Classical conditioning: learn that 2 stimuli can go together \- operant(instrumental) conditioning: learn that behaviour leads to particular outcome Brain changes during learning Long term potentiation : the strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons Why were relapse studies so low in returning Vietnam war vets? \- Heroin addiction: 20% \- General rate: 0.3% First step was to detoxify them before returning home \- What's gonna happen to relapse? \- Relapse rate: 5%(very low) \- General relapse rate: 20% Became addicted under a very specified context so once home, they no longer really needed it What causes enigmatic opiate overdose? \- diff environment \^What research question will you ask and how will you find the answer? Learning allows for homeostasis Functional changes in the addicted brain affects future choice of behaviours \- someone who has damage to frontal cortex show poor judgment of consequences The brains of addicts respond to taking the drug, but also to drug associated cues \- just seeing someone administer cocaine, they start craving it Drug effects decrease with repeated administration leading to tolerance Learning and environmental specificity \- room, time of day Language = form of communication Humans are the only one with true language Animals have forms of communication but not language Lost in translation \- beware of safety as opposed to beware of your safety \- High maintenance chick salon \- Hand grenade instead of fire extinguisher All of these are close but the translation changes the meaning Creating a new language: Still need to follow rules of language Grammar: fake rules \- including syntax and morphology Lexicon= meaningful descriptions of the world Languages differ in how their lexicon describes the world. 1\) Dothraki \- very throaty language 2\) Valyrian Changing cultural views \- shifting towards a more individualized culture \- Word get is now being used more than give Swearing: Why do we swear? \- Why do people get so upset and why do we use certain words to make people upset? \- point is to hurt people without putting yourself in danger(physical would hurt both parties) Taboo words active brain areas associated with negative emotions (right hemisphere) \- basal ganglia is activated when u swear \- Amygdala is activated when other people swear \- Basal ganglia is also overactive with turrets syndrome(ticks or swearing involuntary) The supernatural: \- damn, hell, for Pete's sake, using lords name in vain \- Evokes emotions of awe and fear Body effluvia and organs \- shit, piss, asshole \- Evokes emotions of disgust Diseas death and sickness \- a pox on you, a plague on both your houses Sexuality \- fuck, screw, dick \- Evokes exploitation, jealously, incest, desertion, abuse Family/heritage \- your mamas so, son of a dog \- General insults against family members. Evokes feelings of pride or hurt pride Dysphemistic swearing: Euphemism : we have to talk about this but let's avoid thinking about how awful it is Dysphemism: think about how awful it is Emphatic swearing: \- swearing to add emphasis Cathartic swearing: Makes u feel better when bad stuff happens Rage- circuit theory: Mammals: when suddenly confined or injured, emit sudden angry noise to startle attacker Humans: also triggers language system, aggressive words with negative effect All species communicate but language is special Get a second opinion before tattoo Developing language is a full time job Humans are guided by emotions **SCIENCE OF LEARNING** Perspective of a question affects answer u give \- pre checklist for surgeons---\> think they don't need it but if they're the patient then they recommend Humans make poor cognitive decisions about their own learning Highlighting and rereading notes Is low utility Sharpen the saw: understand the goal \- Mario is using a rusty saw blade but little girl identifies the issue right away \- Mario acknowledges this but he's in a hurry and doesn't understand that if he sharpens the saw, it'll make everything much faster for the other 9 trees Durable learning is the long game of academics \- short term cramming will be gone by final exam time and the additional material will make ur load a lot heavier in terms of relearning info Many students don't spend enough time practicing retrieving info at all Steps of sharpening saw: 1\. Understand the goal and tools 2\. Be proactive rather than reactive 3\. Make restoration part of workflow \- sleep, exercise, etc will make it much harder to learn \- Mental and physical health together make learning situation better Learning while multi tasking... \- leads to divided attention \- We overestimate how much info we can process with our limited attention span \- Cost of switching tasks drains more cognitive resources than single tasking When: \- scheduling spaced work intervals creates an action plan \- Actively plan each day 1\. What tasks should get done today 2\. How much time is required 3\. When can I actually get things done Plan ahead to be proactive rather than reactive How: both input and output are necessary for durable learning \- use flash cards and create practice questions to creatively review for quizterm Retrieval practice leads to durable learning \- rereading: same input \- Repeated testing: input and output Learners judge related studying to be better than practice testing \- right after cramming, might do better but a week later or in future, won't know much \- Smaller difference in rate of loss of info when you use practice testing Apply: implement frequent testing with feedback to promote long term learning \- psych course uses this Active vs passive role in collaborative testing group impacts durable learning Successive relearning \- learn content to specific criterion(practice retrieval plus restudy until correct) \- Realearn the same material \- Relearn the same material \- Relearn the same material Successive relearning group did much better An overwhelmed mind tends to wander **CATEGORIES AND CONCEPTS** Ability to form categories and concepts allow efficient navigation through the world \- captcha test uses this ability to validate humans \- Computers can't really do this Basic is the most abstract level at which objects have similar shapes. \- dogs have similar shapes, beds, balls, etc \- Superordinate(furniture) , basic(chair) and then subordinate level(Windsor, type of chair) \- Usually communicate using basic level \- Bad guys= superordinate level(higher chance for accuracy, low predictive power) \- Imperial troops= basic (have military training \- Snow troopers= subordinate level(lower chance of accuracy, high predictive power) Expertise determines speed of category verification: \- First asked about animal, then bird or dog, then asked aboit specific species(blue jay, chihuahua, etc) \- Respond to basic level much faster than superordinate( bird or dog rather than animal) \- Subordinate is Even longer for the area that isn't their expertise \- However, for their expertise area, their response was almost just as fast as basic level Concept is represented by a prototypical item which has a central tendency. \- new exemplar is classified by its similarity to the prototype \- Typicality effect shows a graded structure to classification \- Typicality influences verification times Gonna be much slower with atypical set of questions Very difficult to come up with rules for categorization Prototypes can be directly formed through instruction of indirectly through inductive learning Categorization inclusion as old depends on pattern type. \- if it's old, have a very accurate chance of guessing it's old \- When shown prototype, it feels very familiar, you've developed the prototype in ur mind Abstraction approach \- learn underlying rude or abstraction of categories and problems(schema) \- Learn particular training examples and their association with appropriate categories or problem solutions \- Some students can answer question skilled Abstractors look for categorization patterns, exemplar memorizers recall specific examples. Advantage of abs tractors on chemistry exam should be limited to exam items that required generalization to new concepts \- conceptual problem solving= Schema is a large Complex unit of Knowledge that encodes properties of typical of instances of general categories and omit properties which don't fit Your perception of the world is guided by prior experiences, biases, and heuristics! There is evidence to suggest that children as young as three are able to understand general categories. This means that if you teach Katie a new fact about her pet dog, she can generalize that new fact to different dogs, even if they don\'t look exactly similar to her own dog. So if Katie learns that her dog likes doggie treats, she can generalize this fact to other dogs she sees. This gives us evidence that children understand something about category membership-- members of the same categories share similar characteristics. -It seems as though children are able to understand something about the innate properties of a given category. In this case, you might be able to change the nature of a machine, but you can\'t change the nature of an animal. -Children as young as three also seem to have a deeper understanding of categories. For example, suppose you present the following strange question to a child: "If I took a toaster, plugged up all of its holes, put a container in it, and put a spout on the side, do you think I could make it work like a teapot?" The child might look at your quizzically, but in the end they will generally agree that it is possible. **Attention** A concept is represented by a prototypical item which has a central tendency. \- new exemplar is classified by its similarity to prototype We only pay attention to a limited set of info in the environment \- 50% of ppl didn't notice new person they were talking to What is attention? \- can be selective in where we focus our attention Alertness arousal= basic aspect of attention that allows person to extract info from environment Selected focus= ability to scan events and stimuli and pick out relevant ones Vigilance= how long you can maintain sustained attention CHANGE blindness: even with directed focus, attention limits lead us to miss information Attention captures a portion of the external world to the internal mind Attention is a dialogue between bottom up and top down processing Bottom up processing- you examine letters to know what sign says Top down processing- you look at ur past experiences and heuristics Focused attention: informs us about process of selection and what happens to unattended stimuli Divided attention- attend to all stimuli. Informs us about processing limitations and attentional capacity \- Objects in real world have multiple features \- attention is the glue required for conjunctive search \- We only pay attention to limited set of info in the environment Multi task is divided attention \- object tracking reveals limit of dignified attention Costs of not paying attention: \- what conditions lead to reductions in alertness, selected focus, vigilance in work settings \- What guidelines can reduce errors or accidents \- How can you improve conditions for your study at home **Memory** Attention is the gateway to memory Pikatchu's Tail: most ppl incorrectly recall the black at the end of the tail but it's not real \- Hello Clarice or good morning example \- Berenstein or berenstain(actually berenstain) \- Double stuff or double stuf Oreo cookies Mandela Effect: top down processing and misattribution of false memories \- called Mandela effect cause ppl believe Mandela died in prison but he didn't Memory is a reconstructive process: \- not always an accurate picture of reality \- ex could know where to find water in drought \- Which mushroom is poisonous Poor meta cognitive awareness leads us to be overconfident in accuracies of memory Building a better lineup for eyewitness confirmation of a suspect: \- Non suspects should fit the eyewitness description of the suspect \- Avoid post identification feedback until after eyewitness rates their confidence \- Tell eyewitness that suspect may or may not be in the lineup Encoding interacts with attention to select items for memory. \- encoding occurs during initial exposure to info \- Then it's stored in memory \- Retrieval: info is recovered from memory when needed Levels of processing is much more important than intent to learn \- memorize check for E or g \- Don't memorize but rate pleasantness \- Second is related to semantics so it's a deeper level of processing Storage of memories occurs through consolidation of neural changes \- vulnerable to retention error \- The longer the retention interval period is between learning and testing is, the more susceptible to misinformation effect SD sets the occasion for instrumental conditioning \- words such as smashed versus contacted will elicit higher speeds even if that wasn't the case \- The more severe the verb, the more Retrieval accesses storehouse of knowledge to present needs MEMORY IS A RECONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS **Forming Impressions** People can be categorized as in group or out group member. In- group= positive attitudes, heterogeneity(see individual differences) Out- group= negative attitudes, homogeneity(see them all the same) Intergroup bias spans cognition, affect, and behaviour \- Stereotypes(cognition): beliefs about attributes that are thought to be characteristic of member of particular group \- Prejudice(affect): negative attitude or affective response towards certain group and it's individual members \- Discrimination: negative behaviour towards members of group based on their membership of that group Individuals can identify with many in-groups How do you form impressions of others? \- dispositional versus situational \- Only seeing one data point though so not very accurate Your perception of world is guided by prior experience \- schemas simplify interactions with the world \- A concept is represented by a prototype \- Conventions guide behaviours in the social world Categorization allows us to make predictions about group members \- stereotypes bias our categorical judgements and assumptions of new examples \- Representativeness= what prototype does this person fit \- Availability= what recent or salient exemplar does this person Match Reaction time and errors reveal automatic processes in a categorization task \- Easier to do congruent versus incongruent task Implicit association task reveals natural associations \- some critiques about what it's measuring \- Two categorization tasks involving four target categories but use only 2 response keys. If cognitively associated categories share a response key, responses will be facilitated(faster with less errors) Implicit attitudes towards race associated with increased amygdala activity \- IAT for black and white versus good/bad \- Faster reaction time when black paired with bad and white paired with good \- Patterns disappear when faces belonged to positively regarded(familiar) black and white faces Thinking fast: using implicit associations can lead to implicit gender biases \- male= independent and competent \- Female= cooperative, warm \- Assertive male= more qualified \- Assertive female= lacking warmth Can lead to Discrimination through: biased reference letters, performance reviews, promotions 2 strategy solution to unconscious bias: Consciously override bias **Influence** Social conventions= how we act based on societal norms Some of the things you know to be true about psychology are wrong Psychological processes are embedded in biology \- human beings are social beings, rely on others for everything including basic needs How do you promote honesty for a public good? \- body cams on police \- Security cameras Imagine office with public good- coffee machine with cream and sugar \- have to put money in and at the end of the week, money is used to get more supplies \- If everyone cheats, not gonna be able to maintain public good In space above coffee machine, put up a poster of human eyes vs flowers \- amount of money increased when pictures of eyes were used Some of things about psych are wrong: \- not just common sense with added academic words Framing: the bias to be systematically affected by the way in which info is presented \- positive vs negative frame Cognitive Dissonance =Counterintuitive finding with profound implications \- Lie to next subject about interest level of completed task \- Subjects who were paid less had greater dissonance between attitude and behaviour \- They had to convince themselves it was interesting because they didn't do it for the money \- People paid 20 were like ya I lied cause I did it for the money( don't change opinion) Can change action or change belief to reduce dissonance \- if u try to return shirt but can't get a refund, WLD try to convince urself that you really really needed this shirt to align actions and attitudes The sink cost trap= unrecoverable investments of resources leading to further investment \- investment of time, money, and emotion \- Even if it's no longer a good investment, u already invested so much so u keep doing it because you don't wanna lose that investment Most people don't think they would conform in milgram\'s experiment \- we think we're above average 80% in 2010 conformed and continued all The way to the end \- things aren't really different today, people will still conform Avianca flight path 52 \- plane circled for super long and they're running low on fuel \- Pilots continue to obey traffic control and know they believe \- ordered to climb but have no fuel \- Pilots never say we're having an emergency, they never say that to traffic control, assume they would know \- Eventually run out of fuel, plane crashes, everyone dies Perps give in psychology change focus of research questions and types of answers found Case of kitty genovese \- Pluralistic ignorance ---\> \- Diffusion of responsibility \- Leads to bystander effect Was the original report accurate \- not 38 people standing in circle doing nothing for 30 mins \- 3 people who had visual angle \- No one called police but police were called after first attack Are groups of humans good or bad, how can groups have prosocial effects? Clinical psychology focuses on mental illness and disorders Positive psychology focuses on groups of people creating positivity Overview effect= cognitive shift in awareness upon returning from space Dramatic shift in perspective - feel less concerned with Individual achievement and focus on