Learning Theory And Clinical Applications PDF

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25/11/2024, 13:39 1.1.1 Learning Theory And Clinical Applications | PassRANZCP.com 0% COMPLETE  Previous Lesson Mark Complete  1.1.1 Learning theory and clinical applications MCQ Exam Pre-Clinical > 1.1 Basics of Psychology > 1.1.1 Learning theory and clinical a… IN PROGRESS Learning Theory: Classical, Operant, Observational and Cognitive Models Learning theory refers to a variety of proposals put forward to explain behavioural changes that are a product of practice. The varieties of learning displayed by mammalian species include classical, operant, observational and cognitive models. The process of learning is described as the acquisition of new knowledge, behaviours, attitudes or ideas. It can happy via unconscious and conscious pathways. Classical conditioning: Classical conditioning is an unconscious process of learning and is also the most straightforward. An automatic conditioned response is paired with a stimulus. Classical conditioning was proposed by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936) and involves a neutral stimulus, such as a bell, that is accompanied by an effective stimulus such as being fed (Akpan, 2020). A response, such as salivation, is eventually evoked by the neutral stimulus and is then said to be conditioned. Classical conditioning has numerous clinical applications. Ex-drug users, for example, frequently have cravings when they are in a drug-related environment or around persons who they associate with previous highs. It is frequently advised to avoid situations that may rekindle their desire to use drugs. It has also been demonstrated that classical conditioning can have an effect on the human immune system. When a specific taste is associated with a medicine that promotes an immune response, the taste itself can occasionally elicit the immunological response at a later time. Classical conditioning can also be used in overcoming phobias. Operant conditioning: Operant conditioning, a concept developed by B.F. Skinner, is a behavioural theory that focuses on modifying behaviour through the use of consequences. In operant conditioning, behaviours are influenced by the results that follow them. Behaviours that are followed by rewarding consequences tend to be repeated, while those followed by undesirable consequences are less likely to be repeated. https://passranzcp.com/topics/1-1-1-learning-theory-and-clinical-applications/ 1/8 25/11/2024, 13:39 1.1.1 Learning Theory And Clinical Applications | PassRANZCP.com In this context, positive reinforcement involves introducing a positive outcome or reward following a behaviour to increase the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated. For example, praising a child for doing homework encourages them to continue this behaviour. Conversely, negative reinforcement involves the removal of an unpleasant outcome to encourage a behavior. An example of this would be stopping persistent reminders once a task is completed. It’s important to note that negative reinforcement is not punishment; it still aims to increase a desired behaviour, but through the removal of a negative condition. Operant conditioning also considers the effect of punishment, which aims to reduce the occurrence of a behavior. Punishment can be positive (adding an unpleasant consequence, such as extra chores for misbehavior) or negative (removing a pleasant stimulus, like taking away a favorite toy). Generalisation can occur in operant conditioning when a subject responds similarly to different stimuli that resemble the original context of reinforcement or punishment. This means that the learned behaviour can be triggered in similar, but not identical, situations. In summary, operant conditioning is a complex process that involves learning through the consequences of behaviour, with the goal of increasing desirable behaviours and decreasing undesirable ones through different forms of reinforcement and punishment. Observational learning: Albert Bandura explained in his 1977 book ‘Social Learning Theory’ that “most human behaviour is learned observationally through modelling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed, and on later occasions, this coded information serves as a guide for action.” A component of social learning theory is observational learning which suggests that observation and modelling play a key role in how and thus why people learn. Learning is more than the result of direct experience, but can occur simply by observing other people’s behaviour. Observational learning does not happy passively. The optimal conditions for observational learning are: Attention Retention Reproduction Motivation Philosophers such as Tolman argued that learning is not passive but rather the active acquisition of new information (Blanton). He also came up with the term latent learning in reference to the notion that learned behaviour is not immediately observable at the time of learning, but is more distinct with time (Johnson and Crowe). Kohler also believed in insight learning, a reference to the idea that a subject could suddenly acquire the skill and knowledge necessary to overcome a problem without trial and error or practice (Windholz and Lamal). In addition, observational learning refers to learning by watching rather than by doing and has its origin in social learning https://passranzcp.com/topics/1-1-1-learning-theory-and-clinical-applications/ 2/8 25/11/2024, 13:39 1.1.1 Learning Theory And Clinical Applications | PassRANZCP.com theory-which proposes that learning is through observing and modelling people in our immediate environment. Cognitive learning: Cognitive learning theory is another theory from Albert Bandura and follows the idea that social structure affects our health status. In order to develop ‘health’ it is necessary to alter the social systems which the person lives within. Changing the behaviours alone is not enough. The theory suggests that behaviour is affected by internal cognitive factors as well as external stimuli. The Concepts of Extinction and Reinforcement On the other hand, extinction occurs when the positive reinforcement is removed thus the desired behaviour is not strengthened (van Haaren, 2020). Furthermore, the schedule of reinforcement can be achieved in either an intermittent or continuous way and consists of two types according to the interval or time of response and according to the ratio or amount of response (Ziv, 2017). Learning Processes and Aetiological Formulation of Clinical Problems, Including the Concepts of Generalisation, Secondary Reinforcement, Incubation and Stimulus Preparedness There are several learning processes and concepts that can be relevant in the aetiological formulation of clinical problems, including: Learning Summary: processes: This refers to the tendency of a learned response or behaviour to be elicited by stimuli that are similar to, but not identical to, the original Generalization stimulus. For example, if a person learns to fear a specific type of spider, they may also experience fear when confronted with other types of spiders or with insects that resemble spiders. Secondary This refers to the reinforcing effects of stimuli that are associated with reinforcement primary reinforcing stimuli, such as food or water. For example, if a person https://passranzcp.com/topics/1-1-1-learning-theory-and-clinical-applications/ 3/8 25/11/2024, 13:39 1.1.1 Learning Theory And Clinical Applications | PassRANZCP.com learns to associate a particular sound with receiving a reward, the sound itself may become reinforcing, even in the absence of the reward. This refers to the idea that learning or problem-solving can occur Incubation unconsciously, over time, as a result of repeated exposure to a problem or stimulus. This refers to the idea that certain stimuli or learning situations are more easily learned or acquired by an organism due to evolutionary or genetic Stimulus factors. For example, humans are thought to have a higher degree of preparedness stimulus preparedness for learning about social and personal relationships than they do for learning about physical processes or abstract concepts. These concepts can be relevant in the aetiological formulation of clinical problems because they can help to explain how and why certain behaviours or responses develop, and how they might be maintained or modified (Brush, 2014) (McConnel, 1990). Escape and Avoidance Conditioning Escape and avoidance conditioning are two types of learning that involve an organism’s response to a stimulus that is unpleasant or aversive. In escape conditioning, an organism learns to perform a particular behaviour or response in order to escape or remove itself from the unpleasant stimulus. In avoidance conditioning, an organism learns to perform a particular behaviour or response in order to avoid or prevent the occurrence of an unpleasant stimulus. Both escape and avoidance conditioning involve negative reinforcement, which is the strengthening of a behaviour or response by the removal or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus. For example, if a dog is placed in a crate and is given a treat every time it barks, it will likely learn to bark more frequently in order to receive more treats. In this case, the dog is performing the behaviour (barking) in order to escape the unpleasant stimulus (being placed in the crate). Escape and avoidance conditioning can be useful in certain situations, but they can also be problematic if an organism becomes overly reliant on them or if the behaviours or responses used to escape or avoid the unpleasant stimulus are inappropriate or harmful. Clinical Applications in Behavioural Treatments Term: Summary: Cueing refers to the use of external stimuli or prompts to help a learner Cueing retrieve or recall information from their memory. Cues can be verbal, visual, or auditory, and they can be used to help learners remember specific facts or concepts, or to trigger the use of a particular strategy or skill. Flooding A technique that involves directly exposing the individual, for an extended time, to anxiety-producing stimuli that are considered to be of maximum https://passranzcp.com/topics/1-1-1-learning-theory-and-clinical-applications/ 4/8 25/11/2024, 13:39 1.1.1 Learning Theory And Clinical Applications | PassRANZCP.com intensity. The aim is to eventually desensitize the subject. Prompting Physical or verbal guidance evokes the desired behaviour which is then reinforced. Shaping Teaching new complex behaviours through reinforced natural actions that closely resemble the desired behaviour. Habituation Astimulus type of learning occurs when an organism becomes less responsive to a over time as a result of repeated exposure to the stimulus. Reciprocal habituation is a specific type of habituation in which an Reciprocal organism’s initial response to a stimulus is typically strong, but as the habituation stimulus is presented repeatedly, the organism’s response to the stimulus decreases. Non-reciprocal Inorganism’s contrast, non-reciprocal habituation refers to situations in which an response to a stimulus does not change over time, even with habituation repeated exposure to the stimulus. Chaining Teaching complex behaviour by breaking it down into simple components. Implosion a therapeutic technique in which clients imagine and relive aversive scenes associated with their anxiety with the help of a therapist. The Impact of Various Reinforcement Schedules In psychology and behaviourism, reinforcement is the use of rewards or other incentives to increase the likelihood that a particular behaviour or response will occur again in the future. There are several different reinforcement schedules that can be used to provide reinforcement, and each one can have a different impact on the frequency and consistency of a particular behaviour. One common reinforcement schedule is continuous reinforcement, in which a behaviour is reinforced every time it occurs. This schedule is often used when trying to establish a new behaviour or when working with very young children or animals. Continuous reinforcement can be effective in creating a strong, consistent response to a particular stimulus, but it can also be time-consuming and may not be sustainable in the long term. Another reinforcement schedule is partial reinforcement, in which a behaviour is reinforced only some of the time. This schedule can be further divided into several subtypes, including fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval. Each of these subtypes involves reinforcing a behaviour based on specific criteria or schedule, such as reinforcing a behaviour after it has occurred a certain number of times (fixed ratio) or reinforcing a behaviour at randomly spaced intervals (variable interval). Partial reinforcement schedules can be more sustainable than continuous reinforcement, but they may also be less effective at establishing strong, consistent responses to stimuli. https://passranzcp.com/topics/1-1-1-learning-theory-and-clinical-applications/ 5/8 25/11/2024, 13:39 1.1.1 Learning Theory And Clinical Applications | PassRANZCP.com Subtype of partial Summary: Example: reinforcement: A reinforcement schedule in which A manufacturer of car parts Fixed ratio a behaviour is reinforced after it rewards an assembly line worker has occurred a specific number of with a bonus every time they times. produce 10 finished parts. A reinforcement schedule in which A casino rewards slot machine Variable ratio a behaviour is reinforced after it players with a payout after an has occurred an unpredictable unpredictable number of spins. number of times. A reinforcement schedule in which A teacher rewards a student with Fixed interval a behaviour is reinforced for the a sticker every Friday for turning first time after a specific amount of in their homework on time all time has elapsed. week. A reinforcement schedule in which A company rewards its Variable interval afirst behaviour is reinforced for the time after an unpredictable employees with a surprise gift every few weeks as a way to amount of time has elapsed. boost morale. The Psychology of Punishment In psychology, punishment is the use of negative consequences or aversive stimuli to decrease the likelihood that a particular behaviour or response will occur again in the future. Punishment is often contrasted with reinforcement, which is the use of positive consequences or rewards to increase the likelihood of a particular behaviour or response. Punishment is only effective if it is administered immediately and in adequate volume to mitigate the occurrence of undesired behaviour. Punishment is more effective when its implementation is agreed upon by the recipient, or makes sense to them, and is combined with the differential reinforcement of the desired behaviour (Kestner, 2018). However, punishment may result in an array of undesirable results that include behavioural rigidity, negative modelling, inappropriate avoidance of other stimuli occurring simultaneously, and aggression towards the situation. References: (1) Akpan, B., 2020. Classical and Operant Conditioning—Ivan Pavlov; Burrhus Skinner. In Science Education in Theory and Practice (pp. 71-84). Springer, Cham. (2) Blackman, D., 2017. Operant conditioning: an experimental analysis of behaviour. Routledge. (3) Blanton, B.B., 1998. The application of the cognitive learning theory to instructional design. International Journal of Instructional Media, 25(2), p.171. https://passranzcp.com/topics/1-1-1-learning-theory-and-clinical-applications/ 6/8 25/11/2024, 13:39 1.1.1 Learning Theory And Clinical Applications | PassRANZCP.com (4) Brush, F.R. ed., 2014. Aversive conditioning and learning. Academic Press. (5) Cain, C.K., 2019. Avoidance problems reconsidered. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 26, pp.9-17. (6) Johnson, A. and Crowe, D.A., 2009. Revisiting Tolman, his theories and cognitive maps. Cogn Crit, 1, pp.43-72. (7) Kestner, K.M., Diaz‐Salvat, C.C., St. Peter, C.C. and Peterson, S.M., 2018. Assessing the repeatability of resurgence in humans: Implications for the use of within‐subject designs. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 110(3), pp.545-552. (8) McConnell, J.V., 1990. Negative reinforcement and positive punishment. Teaching of Psychology, 17(4), pp.247-249. (9) van Haaren, F., 2020. Extinction revisited: Implications for application. Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice, 20(1), p.36. (10) Wegener, G., 2020. Conditioning. (11) Windholz, G. and Lamal, P.A., 1985. Kohler’s insight revisited. Teaching of Psychology, 12(3), pp.165-167. (12) Ziv, G., 2017. The effects of using aversive training methods in dogs—A review. Journal of veterinary behavior, 19, pp.50-60. (13) Rehman, I., Mahabadi, N. and Rehman, C.I. (2019). Classical Conditioning. [online] Nih.gov. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470326/. (14) An Approach to Children’s Smoking Behaviors Using Social Cognitive Learning Theory. (2010). Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention, [online] 11(4), pp.1143–1149. Available at: http://journal.waocp.org/article_25340.html. (15) Classical conditioning: Extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination. [online] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qaOC_3KA3P8&t=1s [Accessed 17 Dec. 2022]. (16) Classical conditioning: Neutral, conditioned, and unconditioned stimuli and responses | Khan Academy. [online] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-6KzZKuQ1lk&t=13s [Accessed 17 Dec. 2022].  Previous Lesson Mark Complete  Next Topic  https://passranzcp.com/topics/1-1-1-learning-theory-and-clinical-applications/ 7/8