Psychology 1002 Notes (University of Sydney) PDF

lOMoARcPSD|14892509 Psyc1002-notes - Full notes of PSYCH got a HD Psychology 1002 (University of Sydney) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Theresa Sassine (theresasas...

lOMoARcPSD|14892509 Psyc1002-notes - Full notes of PSYCH got a HD Psychology 1002 (University of Sydney) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 LEARNING AND MOTIVATION LEC 1: Classical conditioning - A type of learning that happens unconsciously - When learning through classical conditioning, an automatic conditioned response is paired with a specific stimulus - creates a behaviour Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 1936): - An experiment on dogs salivating towards food and he paired the food with a bell so that whenever the bell rang, food is served causing the dog to unconsciously salivate - he called this psychic reflex and later referred to conditioned response through a process of conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (US) Unconditioned response (UR) A thing that triggers an automatic response An instinctual, automated response to US No learning process A response naturally, involuntarily occurs when A natural, instinctual reaction experiencing the US Presence of food (US) results in salivation (UR) Waking up early (US) results in grumpiness (UR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR) Considered a neutral stimulus (initially does not evoke An acquired response to the CS, often the same as UR a response) But in some cases CR is not necessarily the same as Paired with a US - overtime (through process of UR (see rat example below) learning) cause the same response like UR Eg. hearing dentist’s drill: UR: pain, flinch => CR: flinch, stress but no pain) Eg, A bell (CS) is paired with food (US) in which the food (US) cause the dog to salivate (UR), and after the process of learning, the dog will know when the bell rang (CS) it will salivate (CR) Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 Eg. Patients do chemotherapy at the hospital (CS) hence pairing the chemotherapy drugs (US) together, the drugs will cause the patients to feel nausea (UR), overtime, when they look at the hospital ward they will feel nausea (CR) even though they are not doing chemotherapy at the moment 2nd order conditioning Phase 1 Phase 2 Test Bell (US) + food (CS 1 ) Bell (CS 1) + Light (CS 2) Only light (CS 2) - Test: the dog will still salivated even though light has never been paired with food but because it is associated with the bell in which the bell is first paired with food - Once a CS has acquired a CR, it can also act as a US itself ( CS 1 becomes US - when paired with CS 2, CS 2 also acquired a CR) Appetitive conditioning: Something good will happen - Appetitive: characterised by a natural desire to satisfy bodily needs. - Food preferences (bell rang paired with food) - Place preferences (disneyland paired with happiness) Aversive conditioning: Something bad will happen, conditioning of fear and anxiety - Aversive: causing strong dislike or disinclination (a feeling of not wanting to do something) Conditioned fear: - When a CS is associated with an aversive unconditioned stimulus US - as a consequence of learning, CS comes to evoke fear - Development of anxiety disorders in humans - Fear of spiders - CS: spider and US: develop from experience or fear of being bitten by one Anticipatory nausea (chemotherapy) Conditioned taste aversions: - The phenomenon in which a taste is paired with sickness - causing the organism to reject, dislike that taste in the future - Chemotherapy: the thing that the patient last ate before going through chemotherapy - this associated the food with the chemotherapy drugs - hence, when they are re exposed to that food, they’ll feel sick Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 Place avoidance : - Chemotherapy: avoiding the hospitals - context conditioning (stimuli that are in the background whenever leaning occurs) - The painful/ unpleasant event (US) caused the rat to have an escape/ defence behaviour (UR) and when a warning signal (CS) is paired with the shock (US), the rat will know it will be shocked when there is a warning signal hence, it will shows fear (CR) - CR not similar to UR Advertising: - Often operated by associating stimuli that brings out/ elicits a positive affective (feelings or emotions) responses with a brand/ product - People don’t realise and don't care that the original source of those emotions is US not CS Acquisition and extinction - Acquisition: initial period of learning, acquisition describes when an organism learns to connect a CS with an US - Extinction: refers to gradual weakening of a conditioned response by breaking the association between the CS and the US (bell rang but no food presented - the dog gradually stopped salivating at the sound of the bell) Exposure therapy and extinction - Exposure therapy: learning that you’re safe with the thing you are scared of - Spontaneous recovery: a phenomenon refers to the return of a CR (in weaker form) after a period of time following extinction ( Pavlov waited a few days after extinguishing (put to an end to smth) the CR then rang the bell once more - causes the dog to salivated again) - Spontaneous recovery can be due to time (over a period of time) or context (different places, not in the therapy room) Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 A person who is scared of elevator due to past experience (US) - develop a fear for elevator (CS) - learns to avoid feeling that fear (negative reinforcement) - consequence: sense of relief => exposure therapy exposed them to their fear instead of reinforcing the avoid behaviour - create new association with the elevator - extinguish the response of fear (presenting the fear again and again until habituation and extinction occurs) Phobias - Classical conditioning is used both in understanding and treating phobias. - A phobia is an excessive, irrational fear to something specific, like an object or situation. - When you develop a phobia, classical conditions can often explain it. - Eg. if you have a panic attack in a certain place — like an elevator — you may begin to associate elevators with panic and begin avoiding or fearing all elevator rides. Experiencing a negative stimulus can affect your response. - In order to not feel the anxiety, that person will avoid going on a elevator (negative reinforcement) - increase the avoiding behaviour to prevent an aversive outcome - The important thing to remember is that phobias are based on irrational fears. - Just as classical conditioning may have played a part in “learning” that phobia, it can also help treat it by counterconditioning. - If someone is exposed to the object or situation they fear over and over without the negative outcome, classical conditioning can help unlearn the fear. - Once you’ve gone in 100 elevators and experienced no panic, you should no longer associate it with panic. - Counter conditioning: used to help individuals overcome fears or phobias by exposing a person to what they’re scared of - Fear of spiders: looking at a picture at first then gradually building up to see the spider in real life, then holding one) - this will eventually decreases the CR of a person when they see a spider LEC 2: Instrumental learning (operant conditioning) - Occurs when a behaviour is associated with an occurrence of a significant event - Process in which animals learn about the relationship between their behaviour and their consequences - Voluntary behaviour is strongly influenced by its consequences - Law of effect: what a human or animal does is strongly influenced by the immediate consequences of such behaviour in the past - responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation becomes more Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 likely to occur again in that situation (reinforcement) and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again (punishment) Edward Lee Thorndike (1874 - 1949) - An experiment where a rat is put into a cage with a lever and the rat will learn how to push the lever and receive food once it pushed down the lever - this voluntary behaviour is called operant behaviour (a behaviour that is controlled by its consequences) - The food pellets serves as reinforcers (rewards) which increase the likelihood of the rat pushing down the lever to receive more food - Responses that are followed by a satisfying effect will be strengthened (reinforcement) while those are followed by discomfort effect will be weakened (punishment) - Thorndike’s law of effect (1911): given a specific situation, if an action is met with satisfaction, the organism will be more likely to make the same action next time it finds itself in that situation Radical behaviourism: Skinner and Watson - A psychological concept that delves into how environmental factors influence our state of mind - A person’s behaviour and environmental factors that influence it are much more crucial to the fundamental understanding of a person’s psychological state - rejection of anything unobservables (feelings, emotions) - Belief that all human psychology was reducible to relationships between stimuli and responses - Skinner’s work is based on Thorndike - Skinner introduced the concept of reinforcement Reinforcers: - Events that result in an increase in a particular behaviour - Many are intrinsically valued (primary reinforcers): giving a dog food - Secondary reinforcers: acquire their reinforcing properties through experience: clicker for dog - Social reinforcement: praise - Reinforcers: responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behaviour being repeated, increase the likelihood that it will be performed again - Punishers: responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated - weakens the behaviour Shaping - Principle of successive (happening 1 after another) approximation - Reinforce behaviours that are similar to a target behaviour => gradually building up to more stringent (strict, precise, exact), desired behaviour Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 - Worse behaviour in modern life is also reinforced: a child throwing a tantrum and when he receive his parents’ attention or something he wants, he will reinforce this behaviour in the future Different types of instrumental learning Positive reinforcement - A response or behaviour is strengthened by rewards - leading to repetition of desired behaviour - Increase behaviour, response - to receive a pleasant consequence - A kid tidying his room and receive a reward - Dog receiving treats from doing tricks Negative reinforcement (escape/ avoid) - Increase behaviour, response in order to prevent/ remove an unpleasant outcome - Termination of an unpleasant state following a response - Escape (escape an aversive event) : a rat escape the shock from jumping over the barrier to the safe area - Avoidance (prevent an aversive event from occuring) : the rat learns to jump over the barrier when there is a warning signal and avoids the shock - A mother told her kid to pack up his toys or else she will take all his toys and throw them away Ō results in the kid packing away his toy ( avoiding the unpleasant consequence ) - If you don’t finish your homework, your electronics will be taken away - therefore to avoid having all electronics taken away, you finish your homework (strengthening the behaviour of completing your homework to avoid unpleasant consequence) - Negative reinforcement is not punishment Positive punishment Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 - Applying an unpleasant event after a behaviour to reduce the unwanted behaviour - Decrease behaviour, response due to experiencing an unpleasant consequence - A dog is being yelled at because she chewed on the guests’ shoes - Parent spanked their kid because he bullied his friend ( he has experienced the unpleasant consequence due to his behaviour - hence, he won’t bully his friend anymore - reduce the behaviour) Negative punishment (omission) - Decrease behaviour, response because a pleasant outcome is prevented, taken away - Taking away something pleasant after a behaviour occurs - All electronics are taken away instead of having all his electronics because he failed his math exam ( he will try to not fail his math exam again - decrease the response ) - If a child fails to clean her room, she can’t go to the mall with her friends (taking away the desirable activity) Different reinforcement schedule Fixed (schedule is predictable) Variable (schedule is unpredictable) Ratio (responses) Reinforcer occurs after a fixed number Reinforcer occurs after a varying of responses number of responses Piecemeal work, get a reward after Sales, winning a lottery, gambling finishing 5 questions Interval (time period) Reinforcer available after an exact A varying amount of time passess amount of time has passed between each reinforcement Clockwatching, getting paycheck every Nagging, winning a video game, 2 weeks checking email Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 Similarities and differences between classical and instrumental conditioning Classical conditioning Instrumental conditioning Similarities Learning by association Learning by association Stimulus - response learning Stimulus - response learning Differences Involuntary behaviour Voluntary behaviour (operant behaviour) with Passive learning (involuntary learning) a consequence Neutral stimulus turn into conditioned Active learning (voluntary learning) stimulus - elicit behaviour reinforcers/ punishers after behaviour strengthen/ weaken it The response causes sth to happen/ prevents sth from happening Interaction between classical and instrumental conditioning - Through a secondary or conditioned reinforcers - Secondary reinforcer (used in instrumental learning) is something that is not normally reinforcing in its own right - but acquires reinforcing properties when paired with primary reinforcer in the past (classical conditioning) - Eg. Value of money has a reinforcer yet it only derives its instrumental power by first being classically conditioned with good things LEC 3: Stimulus control - Classical and instrumental conditioning: examples of stimulus control - According to Thorndike, satisfying outcomes “stamp in” the connection between stimuli and responses - S - R learning (stimulus - response) Factors important for stimulus control: Learning related Performance related Actions and decisions are controlled by things we’ve Behaviour based on previous experience or responses learnt from past and current environment in similar situation Dictates behaviour from previous learning (through Dictates discrimintation and generalisation classical / instrumental ) Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 Discrimination Generalisation Recognised differences between different stimulus Behaviour transfers to a new stimulus Stimuli controls behaviour is called discriminative Traffic lights are similar everywhere - when going to a stimuli new place, humans generalised them (even though they Stimuli that signals to animals that action is might not be identical ) appropriate, when to behave a certain way Skinner’s Tripartite (3 term) contingency: instrumental conditioning - Illustrates how behaviour is elicited by environment and the consequences of behaviour can affect its future occurrence A: Antecedent: (stimulus controlling behaviour - Sd) B: Behaviour (What responses are reinforced - R) C: Consequence (outcome of behaviour - Sr or Rft) Eg. bell end of class (Sd) - go out the classroom before the bell rang (R) - detention (Rft) Examples of generalisation: Fear conditioning: Watson and Rayner (1920) - Set out to test generalisation of learned fear in an infant - Albert B - US (loud noise) elicits fear (UR) therefore, they paired US with CS (white rat) so that Albert will also elicit fear from the rat (CR) US: loud clanging noise UR: fear / shock CS: white rat CR: fear elicited by rat - After that, they want to see if he will generalised other animals - Albert also scared of other animals and not just rat - he generalised the new stimulus (other animals) with the old stimulus (rat) Conditioned sexual fetish: Rachman (1966) US: pornography UR: penile plethysmography results from sexual arousal CS:boots CR: penile plethysmography results from sexual arousal - Rachman paired pornography (US) with boots (CS) to create a sexual deivant, arousal responses (CR) - Acquisition (US + CS) and extinction (CS) - Spontaneous recovery after 1 week Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 - Generalisation is highest when stimuli are similar and decreases as they share less in similarity Removal of a sexual fetish by aversive conditioning: Marks and Gelder (1967) - Counter conditioning: changing a particular response, behaviour towards a stimulus - In this case, they’re try changing the volunteers’ sexual arousal behaviour (CR) towards sexual fetishes (CR) by using shock - However, after 5 weeks follow up, the sexual arousal behaviour towards sexual fetishes comes back Discrimination learning - Can be learned through training with different schedules of reinforcement - The amount of time to discriminate between different stimulus is based on the similarity/ difference of them (more similar - longer time, vica versa) Examples of discrimination: Classical conditioning Operant conditioning High pitched tone (CS) - food (US) High pitched tone - response - outcome Low pitched tone (CS) - no US (food) Low pitched tone - response - no outcome US is only contingent on the CS but CRs will differ Reinforcement is contingent on both stimulus and responses Classical conditioning: Operant conditioning - Slow metronome - food - response - Classical music - press lever - food - Fast metronome - no food - no response - Techno music - spin around - food Generalisation in humans are complicated - based on - Physical attributes (characteristics) - Semantic similarity - Rules or analogies (abstract) connection Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 Razran (1939) - generalisation in human - People tend to generalised semantic meaning (words with same meaning) rather than phonological similarity (words with different meaning but same pronunciation) - People associate with meaning of words (semantic) - likely to control the behaviour LEC 4: Social learning - Instrumental and classical conditioning involve learning from direct experience (social facilitation) - Behaviourists (Skinner/ Warson) focused on direct experiences (behaviour results from conditioning and reinforcement, generalisation of learned response) rather than behaviour learnt from other’s behaviour Social facilitation: direct experience - Social facilitation: when there is social presence, people tend to perform simple tasks better and complex tasks worse (social inhibition) than they would if they were alone in - When a conspecifics behaviour motivates the individual to engage in similar behaviour or increase the motivation of that individual to perform a task - Refers to improvement in performance induced by the real, implied or imagined presence of others compared to their performance when alone - Eg. weightlifter who is able to lift heavier weights when doing it in from of others vs. doing it alone Goal enhancement: - Gain access to goal that facilitate later trial and error learning - Birds have access to cream (goal) - Birds belong in close proximity community - increase likelihood of getting goal enhancement Stimulus enhancement - Observer others to increase likelihood of approaching places - Birds follow each other to the milk bottles (stimulus) - Close proximity: more likely to encounter the discriminative stimulus and subsequently engage with it Increased motivation to act - Try new things in the company of friends and parents - Being in a social group - changes the way you’re motivated to act on the environment - more likely to explore Example of social facilitation: Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 - English blue tit (bird specie) learns to open milk bottles and steal cream - instrumental conditioning through direct experience - Sd: the clinking of milk bottles - R: pecking the lid - Rft: access to the cream Social learning - When behaviour changes as a direct result of observing the behaviour of others - Acquire new/ altered behaviour by observing others’ actions and their consequence Social learning through classical learning - Behaviour of others act as US that supports classical conditioning - Usually in the same species (conspecific) Observational conditioning through classical learning: Cook and mineka (1991) - Observers: lab raised monkeys with no fear of snake - Performers: wild monkeys with fear of snakes - Lab raised monkeys see the wild monkey reacted to the snake with a scared response - the lab raised monkey acquires the response (fear) when they see the snake (learn through actions of performer) - Fear response of performer acts as US - elicits fear in observer (CR/ UR) and the snake is CR Test the behaviour of the observers in presence of CS and similar toys - Big snake toy to small snake toy - Fear responses are shown throughout the snake toys ( generalisation) Test behaviour of observers with fear of snakes and flowers - However, only observational conditioning shown when snakes - bad, but not when flowers - bad => suggest that there is a biological preparedness to learn some things but not others (due to evolution) => usually more detectable in aversive conditioning Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 - Monkey seems specifically prepared to learn - observational fear conditioning in response to snake but not flowers - selective tendency to learn about aversive outcome - Monkeys had an innate predisposition to learn to fear snakes, not flowers - Genetic predisposition: learning language when young (not an instinct) => a universal human skills to learn rules of grammar, syntax and apply them to describe the world and ourselves Social learning through instrumental learning - How we learn to perform the same behaviour as others and how we learn from observation of others’ actions and consequences Mimicry - Mimicry: Copying without reference to goal (no understanding of action / goal) - Replication of actions Eg. baby copying their parents Emulation - Emulation: The ability to comprehend the goal of a model and engage in similar behaviour to achieve the goal (without necessarily replicating the specific actions, methods) - understand goal but not action Eg. Chimpanzees obtaining food with different methods Imitation - Imitation: Understand action and goal - replication of responses, actions made by performer - Duplicated behaviour exhibited by the model Eg. two action test - exposing naive animals to demonstrators trained to achieve the same goal using different actions (same goal - different actions) Modeling - Modelling: imitate behaviour as well as model general styles of behaviour - A type of learning that occurs as a function of observing, retaining and replicating behaviours by the model - Associated with the learning that occurs when someone observes an activity - Learning a new response Eg. your coworker get punished for coming in late so you start leaving home 10 minutes earlier so that you won’t be late Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 Example of imitation and modeling: - If a person lifts an object in a wrong manner and falls down Imitation: observer may duplicate same way of lifting the object as that person lifted it Modeling: observer might learn and understand that this is not the right way - won’t try and lift the object the same way as the model - observer learnt something new Bandura’s experiment: 1961 - modeling - Children watched an adult modeling aggressive behaviour to an Bobo doll - Children will not only imitate an adult’s specific behaviour but also model general styles of behaviour (aggressive behaviour) Bandura’s experiment: 1965 - how reinforcement influence modeling - 3 groups: rewarded, punished and no consequence - Model observed on tv - Children are more likely to imitate the behaviour of the model who was rewarded and less with model who was punished - Modeling is reinforcement dependent (depends on the reinforcer itself) 3 basic models of observational learning: 1. Live model: involves an actual individual demonstrating 2. Symbolic model: real or fictional characters displaying behaviour is books, films, online media 3. Verbal instructional model: involves descriptions and explanations of a behaviour 4 conditions necessary for social modeling to take place: 1. Attention: focused on the model 2. Retention: remember what you observed, incorporate the model’s action into memory 3. Reproduction: perform the behaviour that the model did 4. Motivation to reproduce actions of model - Was the model reinforced or punished? - Is the reinforcer currently desired Suggested cognitive aspects of social learning: Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 - Humans’ behaviour are beyond imitation and emulation - human have the capacity to learn more on general style behaviour and turn them into their own action - People actively watch others to gain knowledge about the type of things they do - Use that knowledge in situations where it’s useful - information is not always used immediately Bandura’s social learning theory - Punishment that the model received could provide a disincentive for the observer to reproduce the same behaviour - Social behaviour is learned by observing and imitating the behaviors of others - Emphasises the importance of observing, modelling and imitating the behaviours, attitudes of others LEC 5: General principles of learning Learning research: - Goal: understand behaviour - identify principles that are general to many situation - can predict, improve, enhance behaviour What affects conditioning: - Factors impacts the strength, speed and efficacy of learning - Efficacy: the ability to produce a desired or intended result, effectiveness - tỉ lệ hiệu quả, sự hiệu nghiệm Frequency: - Number of time events are paired together (many times vs one time) - Acquisition: acquire new response - More event pairings - more learning Intensity: - Salience event - capture your attention - Salience - how much attention you paid to the stimulus - Salient: most noticeable or important 1. Salience of the CS / Sd - More intense in CS / Sd - faster learning - Eg. Salience of the stimulus - CS (bell - dog) or Sd (the clinking sound of the milk bottles - english blute tits) 2. Salience of the US / Reinforcer (Rft) Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 - More intense US / Rft - greater amount of learning - Eg. Salience of US (food - dog) - wet dog food (dog likes) vs dry food (depends on the dog preference) / reinforcer (cream in milk bottle - english blute tits) - depends on personal preferences on the reinforcer (how rewarding the reinforcers/ US are) Contiguity: - Temporal contiguity: occurs when 2 stimuli are experienced close together in time - an association maybe formed (depends on the temporal contiguity) - how far apart the events occur (refers to time between onset of CS and US) - Strong temporal contiguity: US appears close to CS - US appears much later to CS: weak temporal contiguity - Closer together - better learning - The association between behaviour and the reinforcer/ punisher and the strength of the association between the CS and the US - largely affected temporal contiguity Contingency: - Contingency: probability of smth might happen in the future - Higher contingency - better learning - Probability that US follows CS or Rft follows R - Probability that US occurs or Rft occurs Classical: food (US) follows bell (CS) Instrumental: treat (Rft) follows dog sit still ( R) Learning - An enduring change within an organism brought about by experience that makes a change in behaviour possible - Enduring: changes are relatively stable, long lasting - Experience: practice, previous trials Learning is not performance - Performance is affected by learning, also depends on opportunity, motivation, sensory and motor capabilities - changes in performance dont always reflect changes in learning Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 Learning is not Reflexes: innate behaviours - These changes in behaviour are not brought by experience but innate - Reflexes are automatic, usually very fast - learning is not required - Eliciting stimuli: airpuff - blink, food - salivation, pain - withdrawal - Reflex arc: sensory (afferent) nerves detect stimuli - send information brain - motor (efferent) nerves stimulate muscles Instincts: genetics - Also genetic, but are more complicated than reflexes - Tend to be only triggered in certain motivational states. - Evolutionarily developed and essential for survival of the species (eg. typically involve in food and reproduction) - Behavioural sequence - made up of units which are largely genetically determined, pre programmed and are typical of all members of a species => learning is not required - Involve several muscle systems, last longer, and are sensitive to the motivational state of the organism. - Difference between reflexes and instinct is in complexity, not type - Eg. mating rituals, motherly instinct - nurturing behvaiour, kissing, emotional expression (scared, anger), nurturing response elicited by features of babies (eg. big eyes) Reflex Instincts Involve individual muscle system Involve several muscular systems Innate behaviour Entire behavioural sequence Fast, quick response Take more time to execute Always occur in response to their eliciting stimuli Sensitive to motivational factors Eg. knee jerking when tapped, constriction of pupil Eg. fear, anger Maturation: aging - These changes in behaviours are brought about by aging - Refers to changes that take place in your body and in your behaviour because your getting older - learning is not required - Eg. ‘learning’ to walk Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 Fatigue: unstable behaviour - This change in behaviour is not stable - Fatigue is a usually transient (temporary) state of discomfort and loss of efficiency as a normal reaction to emotional strain, physical exertion, boredom or lack of rest - May lead to physical inability to perform a learned response… not evidence of lack of learning Simplest form of learning: Habituation: - Habituation: decreased responding produced by repeated stimulation - become familiar with the repetition of the stimulus - Eg. rat jumps less with each presentation of a loud noise Habituation is not: - Fatigue (occurs when muscles become incapacitated to the organism can no longer perform response - Sensory adaptation: sense organs become temporarily insensitive to stimulation (bright light or loud noise) Sensitisation: increased responding by repeated stimulation - Increased responding produced by repeated stimulation - Eg. rats run more in response to the same amount of cocaine when they are pre exposed to cocaine - Background noise results in more vigorous startle reaction to a tone - Habituate and sensitise help us sort out what stimuli to ignore and what to respond to - help us organise and focus our behaviour in a world of meaningless stimuli Difference between habituation and extinction: Habituation Extinction Decrease in response to a particular stimulus due to The disappearance of a previously learnt behaviour repeated presentations when the behaviour is not reinforced. The reaction or response to an object or event This occurs in both classical and operant conditioning eventually reduces due to continuous exposure to the Extinction-based theories suggest that anxiety sam reduction results from repeated encounters with Decline in fear responses, particularly the physiological anxiety-provoking situations without aversive responses, over repeated exposures to fear-provoking consequences stimuli Eg. after Pavlov's dog was conditioned to salivate at Is regarded as an unlearned temporary reaction the sound of a bell, it eventually stopped salivating to Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 Is supposed not to be affected by cognitions the bell after the bell had been sounded repeatedly but Eg. the sound of a noisy fan might disturb a studying no food came student initially but once the student keeps facing the same sound, he/she will become habituated to the noise produced by the fan and the sound will then not cause disturbance to him LEC 6: Instincts, drives and habits Motivation: - Learning needs motivation - Why individuals initiate, choose or persist in specific actions in specific circumstances - Necessary condition of behaviour - Energising effect on behaviour (allowing individual to reinforce the behaviour) - A transient state - vary over time (different from learning) - Physiological needs (biological needs): are innate, biological, and must be met in order for you to survive (hunger, thirst) - Psychological needs are based on your thoughts, feelings, beliefs, expectations, and self-image - Learned needs are needs that come from your experiences and are heavily influenced by things that happen to you throughout your life. You learn to want things like praise, money, success, and pleasure Hebb’s analogy: - Innate/learned determines now power (from motivation) gets directed into the environment - Eg. male bird of paradise perform a mating ritual (instinct) in front of a female bird ( motivation from mating season, presence of female birds - elicit behaviour in male bird) Ethology: study of animal’s behaviour - identify factors that elicits specific behaviours - Konrad Lorenz and Nikolaas Tinbergen: ethologists Fixed action pattern Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 - Instinctive behavioral sequence that is highly stereotyped and species-characteristic - Trigger by something in the environment (external stimuli, sign stimuli or releasing stimuli) => not reflex - Once initiated behavior will run to completion regardless of changes in the environment (independent of immediate external control) => automatic sequence of action that is compelled to perform - Automatically elicited, not directly motivated by the end goal but by a combination of environmental and biological circumstance (breeding season, nestine) => associated with a specific source of energy (Action Specific Energy) => require an appropriate motivational state (eg. presence of sex hormones before mating behvaiour is released) - Can occur spontaneously when motivational state is high enough => occur without a releasing stimulus Eg. Goose will take egg like object back to its nest (due to innate behaviour trigger by a biological state in the mother - stimuli: needs to be in breeding season and sitting on a nest) Eg. Human: eyebrow flash Types of external stimulus that triggers FAP Sign stimulus Eg. Stickleback fish: - in mating season will have a red belly and the sight of other red bellied male (potential rival) triggers a aggressive behaviour in the fish (it will attack unrealistic fish models with red belly but not realistic looking fish model) - sign stimulus (red bellied) started off the fixed action pattern in the stickleback fish - Breeding season (biological state) - red bellied fish (sign stimuli) - aggressive behaviour (FAP) Eg. Herring Gull chicks - Herring Gulls had a distinctive red mark on their beak => a releasing stimulus for the FAP of pecking behaviours - Chicks pecked only at the beak with red dot and peck more at the stick where it has multiple red spots (supernormal stimuli) Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 Supernormal stimulus: - Exaggeration of sign stimulus - elicits more vigorous (energetic, strong) behaviour than usual - Eg. junk food - eating more sweeter, more calorically dense than naturally occurring food - Eg. Australian jewel beetle prefer beer bottle (supernormal stimuli) - bigger, orange, covered in dimple, sign stimuli: female beetles => elicit FAP: mating behaviour Action Specific Energy: - The specific source of energy associated with a FAP, the level of which controls the intensity with which the FAP is performed or its sensitivity to the occurrence of releasing stimuli - With sufficient energy build up => FAP can occur with the absence of any releaser Human ethology: 1. Biological basic (genetic studies) 4. Separated identical twin studies 2. Cross species similarity 5. Developmental studies 3. Cross cultural similarity Non verbal communication: Eibl - Eibesfeldt - Cross cultural similarity - related to human facial expression - Eg. Flirting, acting coy, smiling Problems with instincts as explanations for behaviour: - Circularity (both side of arguments making the same point, how behaviour actually happen) - Proliferation (assuming instincts explain every behaviour, is behaviour innate or instinctive) - Instincts are difficult to empirically test and observe - Some instincts are not universal - Some behaviors can’t be explained by instincts alone - instinct doesn’t account for all behaviour Learned behaviour - Looks like instinct - Habituation behaviour (driving to a destination - when arrive at the location wonder how we get there) - perform without much thought Drive theories: Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 - Drives: flexible systems that organise behaviour around a basic need (hunger, thirst produce a drive for food, drink) - increased arousal and internal motivation to reach a particular goal => a tendency to behave brought about by an unsatisfied need - Biological drives: hunger, thirst (essential to survive) Specific drive theories: - Drive sentitises the individual to stimuli important to satisfy/ reduce the drive - Motivated individual to behave in a way to satisfy (reduce) the drive General drive theories: Clark Hull - Arises from deprivation (lacking of essential things) - produces needs - activates, energises behaviour (determined by learning) - reduction of drive is reinforcing - Reinforced when a drive is reduced - Biological response to need (internal tension) Habit: - Habit: Whereby exposure to a cue automatically triggers a non-conscious impulse to act due to the activation of a learned association between the cue and the action - Behaviour that reduces drive will be reinforced and associated with the situation - Habitual behavior is regulated by an impulsive process => can be elicited with minimal cognitive effort, awareness, control, or intention Formation of habit: - When an initially goal-directed behavior becomes habitual, action initiation transfers from conscious motivational processes to context-cued impulse-driven mechanisms. - Repeated performance following exposure to a reliably co-occurring cue reinforces mental cue-action associations => as these associations develop, the habitual response gradually becomes the default, with alternative actions becoming less cognitively accessible Requirements to elicit a habit: - Habit is learned through “context-dependent repetition” - The environment reminds an individual to perform a behaviour not due to the goal but drive has to be presented - Learned habit is performed without consideration of the value of the reinforcer (no goal) Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 Advantages of general drive theories: - Specific drive theories suffer from circularity and homunculus problem ( you have a specific drive for food when hungry but how does that specific drive know to look for food - does it has a specific drive that allows it to look for food? ) - General drive theories explain reinforcement as drive reduction + Organism learns to reduce drive + Not necessary to infer specific drives for each biological needs (no goal) - Not innate behavior perform automatically Problems with drive theories: - Drive reduction isn’t necessary for reinforcement Eg. artificial sweeteners as a reinforcer even though it doesn’t satisfy biological needs for hunger - yet seems to be reinforcing - Stimulating a drive can be reinforcing Eg. going to a bar and sees an attractive man => a powerful reinforcer that stimulate sex drive - Ignores role of qualitative differences between reinforcers Eg. both chocolate and strawberry ice cream satisfy the drive while some prefer chocolate or others prefer strawberry => no explanation for human complexity of preferences Evolutionary fitness Survival of the fittest: - Limited resources, competition for resources - Individuals with best suited traits in environment will survive Fitness to reproduce: - Ability to produce progeny is a critical factor in natural selection (Darwin) - Physical and behavioural characteristics passed to offspring (via genes) Non homeostatic drives Homeostatic drives Concerns about survival of organism Concerns about the survival of species All behaviour is motivated to satisfy an immediate Not all behaviour is motivated to satisfy an immediate biological need biological need Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 Based on your own survival; Distal motivator: maintaining reproductive success, Proximal motivator: maintaining homeostasis, facilitating survival of species facilitating survival of organism Eg. sex drives Sex drive: distal motivator - Psychobiological drives are deterministic (driven by past events) - NO: sex drive in order to pass your genes onto the next generation - YES: sex drive due to having a sex drive helped your parents to successfully reproduce => you inherited this trait from them LEC 7: Rewards, incentives and goals Harlow and Maternal deprivation: - Baby monkey is more attached to cloth mother than wire mother, even though wire mother serves milk (biological needs) - Even though biological needs were satisfied via wire mother, the monkeys preferred cloth mother - Maternal deprivation: the pure education of a drive is not the only motivation for behaviour - Explanation: needs extend beyond the biological needs Incentive motivation - Positive consequences - Focus of drive theory is to reduce negative internal stimulus, reduction of unpleasant state - Incentive motivation focuses on rewards “attracting” the subject’s behaviour - Incentive: a thing that motivates or encourages one to do something. - Disincentive: a factor, especially a financial disadvantage, that tends to discourage people from doing something Incentive value of an outcome: - Can be acquired through conditioning - Transient (temporal) incentive value determined by: + Liking + Current arousal, preferred activity + Biological need + Current state of the individual - Only works if individuals place values on rewards after their behaviour - Impulsivity: emotion, behaviour, self control Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 Delayed reward discounting: - Rewards loses value over time - Rewards display economic principles: + Value of rewards decreases with delay + Choices sensitive to financial needs + Correlated with impulsivity and disorders of abuse Eg. Marshmallow test: children are given a marshmallow and told to wait for 15 minutes without eating the marshmallow then they will receive another marshmallow as a rewards for waiting (⅔ children eat the marshmallow without waiting => having the treat immediately can be a powerful motivator) Long term human needs and goals - Drive theory (behaviourists): difficult to extrapolate to everyday life, failure to deal with non biological needs, failure to deal with goal directed behaviour - Recognition of intrinsic rewards as sources of motivation - Intrinsic rewards: feeling accomplish, intangible award of recognition, a sense of achievement, or a conscious satisfaction after a completion of task (internal rewards, motivator) - Extrinsic reward: an award that is tangible or physically given to you for accomplishing something (money, a medal) - Intrinsic: being an extremely important and basic characteristic of a person or thing => belonging naturally; essential (Maths is an intrinsic part of the school curriculum) - Intrinsic motivation: doing something simply for the love of doing it (i.e. intrinsic motivation). - Extrinsically motivation: when an activity or behavior is motivated by rewards => rewards become the reason that drives someone to do some activity or behavior, they won’t be doing it purely for its own sake anymore + All rewards—both intrinsic rewards and extrinsic rewards are by definition extrinsic motivations (i.e. extrinsic to the activity or behavior). Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 Assessing human goals: qualitative approaches: - Henry Murray (1938): pioneered the use of projective tests to study people’s needs and goals Test: Rorschach and Thematic Apperception Tests (TAT) - People are asked to describe an ambiguous image, and their descriptions are analysed for themes - A person’s preoccupations, needs, drives and goals will be projected into their interpretations - Understand people’s intrinsic needs, assess needs, fear that individual won't admit Long term human needs - Need for achievement: nAch - Acquisition of others’ love and support: nAffil - Acquisition of power: nPower - Acquisition of others’ approval and respect: nApproval Need for achievement (nAch): can use TAT - A positive desire to accomplish tasks and compete successfully with standards of excellence - To accomplish something difficult, solving problems - Satisfy intrinsic needs - Harder task => more intrinsic needs => higher satisfaction, increased positive feeling - High nAch (want to succeed) vs low nAch (don’t mind if they succeed or not) People with high nAch will tend towards tasks that: - Personal responsibility for solving problems - Sets moderate goals => intermediate difficulty (not too hard or not too easy) - Needs concrete rapid performance feedback nAch in long term behavioural differences: - Executives have a higher nAch compared to other jobs - Utility of success: intrinsic rewards of succeeding Experiment: ring of toss 1960 1. I find situations that allow me to really test my abilities (1: strongly disagree => low nAch to 4: strongly agree => high nAch) Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 2. If I don’t immediately understand a problem, I start to feel anxious (1: strongly disagree => high nAch to 4: strongly agree => low nAch) - High nAch: preference for difficult task but not too difficult - Low nAch: feel less of compulsion to succeed Expectancy - value theories - Consider a person’s expectancy of actually obtaining the goal - If probability of success is high => utility of success (US) is low => easy tasks aren’t satisfying Summary: long term motivation of human behaviour - Requires an understanding of incentive value (beyond biological needs and hedonics) - Our goals often center on intrinsic sources of motivation => those comes from within (sense of satisfaction - nAch) => not motivated by extrinsic rewards - Motivational properties of incentives and rewards follow economic principles: + Delay discounting + Expected utility ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY LEC 1: Introduction to abnormal psychology Empirical method - Empirical method: any procedure for conducting an investigation that relies upon experimentation and systematic observation rather than theoretical (based on theory) speculation (suy đoán) - To understand abnormal thinking, behaviour and emotions through experimental observations Empirical method used at different levels: 1. Description: classification, diagnosis (on going process - empirical method to help with diagnosis) => talk amongst psychologists what different disorders are Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 2. Causation (the process of causing smth to happen or exist): biological, psychological, social (eg. nature vs. nurture) => what causes the disorder (family history/ social context/ biological) => combination of different things 3. Treatment: effectiveness Important in abnormal psychology because: - Aims to help us better understand and define abnormal behaviour, emotion and cognition through the classification and diagnosis of mental health disorders - Help us better understand causal pathways involved in mental health disorders - Aims to assist with our study of treatment effectiveness of mental disorders Abnormal psychology - Abnormal psychology: scientific study of abnormal behaviour, emotion and cognition using empirical method - Psychology: understand and explain why we behave, think and feel the way we do - Cognition: the use of conscious mental processes, mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thoughts, experience and senses - Cognitive: connected with thinking or mental processes Unusual/ rare/ deviant - Eg. Fetishism (foot fetish => sexual interest in an object or body part other than sexual organs) - BUT: Eccentric (strange behaviour) => wouldn't consider abnormal, positively valued deviations (very beautiful, smart) => these are not considered abnormal - Deviance along can’t be considered to define abnormality Unacceptable in culture - Eg. Auditory (hearing) hallucinations - BUT: Homosexuality in DSM III (used to consider a mental disorder not until 1973), drapetomania (runaway slave => considered unacceptable in culture in late 90s century ), pathological independence (women want to study, work, be independence => considered unacceptable back then) Causes distress: - Eg. Depression/ anxiety - BUT: Normal grief, distress (not considered a mental disorder) ,bipolar disorder (manic episode cause the person to feel great, productive with no sign of distress but it’s an disorder) Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 - Distress alone is not likely judged to be abnormal unless it’s disproportionately intense or long lasting relative to the situation Dysfunctional: - Behaviors that interfere with a person’s ability to work or to experience satisfying relationships with other people - Eg. ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) - if kids weren’t forced to go to school and allowed to play around - ADHD wouldn't considered abnormal - BUT: Psychopaths, narcissists (highly functional - look normal) - Behaviour judged as abnormal are dysfunctional either for the individual or for society - These behaviours are maladaptive (preventing an person from adapting to a new/ difficult situation), self defeating and interferes with the life goals of the person - Neither one on its own is necessary, sufficient and cultural context - Judgements about what is ‘normal’ and ‘abnormal’ can differ depending on the time and culture - Normality and abnormality as a continuum Abnormality as a social construct: - Whether a behaviour is considered abnormal involves a social judgement made on the basic of 3 D’s (distress, dysfunction, deviance) - However there is no discrete standards for them as they sit on a continuum - May define abnormal behaviour as: behaviour that is personally distressing, personally dysfunctional and/ or so culturally deviant that other people judge it to be inappropriate and maladaptive Summary: - Difficult to define => doesn't have 1 necessary or sufficient characteristic - Presence of psychological abnormality (mental disorder) is not as readily definable as physical illness (eg. broken bone - see the problem clearly) => much more complex than that (working progress) - Psychological abnormality exists on a continuum with normality - Definitions of psychological abnormality reflect cultural values and social norms - “A mental disorder is whatever is included in the DSM” + Published by American Psychiatric Association + Change definitions of disorders => new disorders and removed disorders (eg. homosexuality, drapetomenia) Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 + Reflects biological/ medical model of mental illness Models of “mental illness” Supernatural: - Cause: spirits, stars, moon, past lives - Treatment: exorcism, prayer - But not one that examine by empirical methods are used nor practice my psychologists Biological: - Cause: internal physical problems ( = biological dysfunction) - Treatment: bleeding, diet, exercise, rest, medication - Eg. broken bone - treatment: casting Psychological: - Cause: beliefs, perceptions, values, goals, motivations (= psychological dysfunction) - Treatment: talking therapy, psychotherapy Sociocultural: - Cause: poverty, prejudice, cultural norms - Treatment: social work (fix social ills - eg. finance, support housing, family system) Integrative : dominant model - Combination of bio - psycho - social model - Abnormal: difficult to define - doesn't have 1 necessary or sufficient characteristic - Theoretical approach influences description, causal explanations, treatment of disorder - Psychopathology is multiply determined: need to consider reciprocal relations between biological, psychological, sociocultural factors Lec 2 Different models Biological/ medical model - Oldest and currently the most dominant model (DSM - 5) - main model used by neuropsychiatrist/ psychiatrist Assumes that psychological disorders can be: Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 - Diagnosed similar to physical illness - Explained in terms of biological disease process (neurochemical imbalance in brain - Depression or structural brain abnormalities - Schizophrenia, gray matter deficit/ smaller brain volume - ADHD) - Treatment targets biological deficiencies (medication, electroconvulsive therapy) - Gray matter: contains most of the brain’s neuronal cell bodies - regions of the brain involved in muscle control, sensory perception (hearing, seeing, memory, emotions, self control, decision making) - Perception: a belief or opinion often held by many people based on how things seem (understanding, awareness) OR the state of being aware of something through the senses - sự nhận thức - Perceive: become aware or conscious about something - nhận thức Historically: - Mental illness = madness, deviant - Gross distortions of perceptions of reality (seeing, hearing things) - Bizarre disorganised thought, affect, behaviour Ancient Greece and Rome - Hippocrates (460 - 377BC), Galen (129 - 198BC) - Eg. Histeria (dryness in the womb of the woman - cause abnormal behaviour, thoughts, distress) Middle Ages (6 - 15th century) - Europe: Catholic church took over authority => Causes move towards supernatural modell/ god's punishment (treatment: exorcism) - Luckily, Islamic civilisations upheld biological model - ongoing evolution on the biological model (physical change, physical cause - biological mode) Europe (19 - 20th century) - Some mental illness found to have physical cause (eg. invisible germs, Syphilis, TBI) - Begun to be seen as a field for medicine - Eg. Syphilis - causes from biological model - impact a person’s mind, starts to hallucinate Criticism and limitations: Avoid extreme reductionism - Complexity of psychological phenomenon are impossible to explain at the neural/ molecular level - Social can also be an influence (people live in a society, live together) Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 Over extrapolation from animal research - Something that happens in a lab can’t be map into the complexity of an individual in their environment Presuming causation from treatment efficacy - Eg. have a headache - drink panadol - no headache (so it means didn’t have enough panadol?) Medical model may not be applicable to psychological illness - Clear boundary between physical health and illness - but psychological health and disorder sit in a continuum (no specific cause and treatment for each condition, can affect the mind, not just body) - Clear boundaries between different physical illness (a broken bone or muscle problem) - but there is comorbidity among psychological disorders (individuals are present with 1+ psychological presentation - high rate of comorbidity) - Eg. An individual present with depressive disorder may have a substance use disorder as a coping strategy ( boundaries are lease clear in psychology) - Comorbidity: when an individual has 2+ distinct illnesses at the same time - the co occurence of more than 1 disorder in the same individual Psychological models Psychoanalytic model - Theory of psychoanalysis was most dominant in first half of the 20th century - Sigman Freud (1856 - 1939) described personality as: + Id: unconscious - basic urges, instinctual drives, wants and desires, driven by pleasure principle (inner child) + Ego: reality principle - satisfy ID but in realistic means (develop at age of 2) - problem solving + Superego: moral principle, moral self - what’s right or wrong (develop at age 5) - Constant conflicts between Id and Superego while Ego tries to solve the problem and meet both needs => maladjustment - Maladjustment occurs due to unresolved conflicts => experience anxiety => excessive use of defence mechanisms (a way to cope) => symptoms/ suffering - Defence mechanism - help us from knowing what is happening in the unconscious - Same process explains normal and abnormal behaviour (excessive use of defence mechanism) - people have defence mechanisms (repression to push things away, projecting frustration onto people) Eg. dislike dad Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 Id: wants to get rid Superego: getting rid of is wrong, immoral Ego: develops defence mechanism (repression, denial, projection, reaction formation, displacement) - Freud didn’t believe in normality => all individuals have conflicts all the time from surrounding environment (some can solve the conflicts => not result in excessive use of defence mechanism) Diagnosis - Unlike medical model - symptoms themselves are NOT central to diagnosis - 2 people with same conflicts can manifest (to show something clearly, through signs or actions) different symptoms (one use projection, other use repression) - 2 people with same symptoms can have difference conflicts (dislike of dad or who they are as a person - Same individual can develop different symptoms profile overtime - resulting from the same underlying cause (an individual start with social anxiety => develop to generalised anxiety - infiltrates other area not just social situation) - Symptoms do NOT necessarily have a 1 to 1 correspondence with ‘cause’ Treatment: - Building insight into unconscious process - what’s happening underlying of Id - Develop awareness of the unresolved conflicts - Develop awareness of defence mechanisms - using excessively Significance - Revolutionised the concept of mental illness - Made no clear dividing line between abnormal and normal - Had strong influence in the early stage of DSM Criticisms and limitations: - Lack of evidence - No open to empirical evaluation (difficult to use - how can we understand Id, Ego, Superego) - Unfalsifiable: unable to be shown as false although possibly not true (no empirical test can establish that this theory is false) Eg. in Oedipus Complex: Freud said that young boys in love with their mom and hate their dad => no one will say ‘up that’s me’ => which disprove the Oedipus complex but psychoanalytic model said - that’s a conflict you have repressed - in your unconscious Humanistic model: 1960’s and 1970’s - A reaction to the negativity of psychoanalytic model Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 - People begin with psychological health + Self actualised (Maslow): experience life to the full, trust your own feelings, independent, aware of society’s rules but don’t accept without questions, appreciate the wonders of life + Fully functioning human (Rogers) - Maladjustment occur because the self actualisation has been thwarted ( environment imposes conditions of worth, own experience, emotions needs blocked your capacity who you’re truly be ) - Eg. this is a good path to take - force to do this path (economics) , desire another path (art) Treatment: - Empathy, unconditional positive regard - supporting them Criticisms and limitations: - These form element of therapy => NOT sufficient (eg.anxiety patient - only provide warmth, support but no other strategy to overcome the anxiety - prohibit their journey to change/ empowerment) - Difficult to research => when is self actualisation is achieved Behavioural model - Reaction to psychoanalysis being unfalsifiable => behaviour is observable and measurable (radical behaviourists - Pavlov, Skinner) - Classical conditioning (US-UR , CS-CR) and operant conditioning (reinforcements/ punishment) Classical conditioning: US: attack - UR: fear CS: attack at a park - CR: fear => operant conditioning: person with anxiety learned to avoid park in the future - avoidance is reinforced - treatment: exposure therapy - Suggests explanations for both normal and abnormal behaviour - Adjustment/ maladjustment from your learning history Treatment: - Many applications (exposure therapy) Criticisms and limitations: - Overemphasis on behavioural aspects (excluding cognitive and emotional elements) - people have mental models - also a fear of cognition, not just behavioural Observational / modelling (Bandura - 1974) Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 - Showed learning through observation - not own experience - Reintroduced the importance of cognitions (mental presentation) - Eg. anxious parents - influence the child’s behaviour (show anxiety behaviour) Cognitive behavioural model - Contains both cognitive and behavioural - Current dominant psychological model - most empirical evidence to support - Thoughts - feelings - behaviour (what we think influences how we feel influences what we do) Maladjustment: - Negative core beliefs - deep tree root belief (came from early life experiences) - Interpretations of experiences are consistent with our core beliefs - Cognitive distortions/ biases - Automatic negative thoughts - Faulty learning - unhelpful behaviour Treatment: - Cognitive restructuring, exposure, behavioural experiment - test out prediction that we have based on cognitive distortion Cognitive distortion: - Use excessively may interrupt that way we view ourselves, the world, people around us - Limitations: - Cognitive : too simplistic - Could be restrictive - not allow you to the unconscious processes that psychoanalytic model would say Psychoanalytic model Humanistic model Causes: repression of unresolved conflict Causes: thwarted self actualisation Treatment: insight, awareness Treatment: empathy, unconditional positive regard Behavioural model Cognitive behavioural model Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 Causes: learned association (S - R) Causes: negative core beliefs, biased thinking, learned Treatment: learn new association associations Treatment: cognitive restructuring, exposure, behavioural experiments Classification and causation (diagnosis) - Reliability: clinicians using the system should show high lev- els of agreement in their diagnostic decisions - Validity: the diagnostic categories should accurately capture the essential features of the various disorders. Classification systems - Help, improve communication amongst researchers and health professionals - Improve research, classification and treatment planning Endogenous depression (biological based, chemical imbalance in brain - depression: deficit of serotonin) Exogenous depression ( reactive, a series of stress - caused them to have a response, not necessarily biological based) - May improve communication and understanding of mental health in the communication - May reduce social stigma ( Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) case example) - Some people find diagnosis helpful ( providing people reliefs as they know what’s wrong with them) - Stigma is when someone views you in a negative way because you have a distinguishing characteristic or personal trait that's thought to be, or actually is, a disadvantage (a negative stereotype). 2 main publications detailing the symptoms of psychological disorders 1. International Classification of Diseases and Health Related Problems (ICD) 2. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) - American Psychiatric Association - Define symptoms, criteria, differential diagnosis - Reflects the biological/ medical model - Most agreed upon definitions/ current consensus (general accepted opinion, wide agreement) - Evolving 5th edition published in 2013 - Helpful but guidance only Notably: Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 - Homosexuality removed in 1973 - Generalised Anxiety Disorder first introduced in DSM III (1987) - Binge Eating Disorder first included in DSM 5 (2013) - Asperger’s Disorder removed from DSM 5 (2013) - meet criteria for ASD instead Causation: - Each person has some degree of vulnerability (ranging from very low to very high) for developing a psychological disorder, given a sufficient stress - The vulnerability or predisposition (a liability or tendency to suffer from a particular condition) can gave a biological basis (in our genotype, underactivity of NT system in brain) - Also be due to personality factor (low self esteem, previous environmental or social factors) - Cultural factor (competitiveness) - can create a vulnerability to certain disorders - A person who has a genetic predisposition to depression or someone who suffered a traumatic loss of a parent in their childhood may be primed (main, key) to develop a depressive disorder is faced with the stress of a significant loss later in life Development of the DSM DSM I (1952) and II (1968) - strongly influenced by psychoanalytic theory - Eg. DSM I depressive reaction: - Problematic reliability (interrater reliability quite low) => agreement on the diagnosis (how much depression/ self deprecation is needed? How often? What if guilt is not present? What qualifies as a ‘loss’? ) - Problematic validity (is this really what ‘depression’ is? - based on unproven theories about etiology - depression as a defense mechanism from unacceptable unconscious ambivalent feelings) DSM III (1980) and beyond - DSM III (1980) - DSM III R (1987) - DSM IV (1994) - DSM IV TR (2000) - DSM V (2013) DSM 5 (2013): - Reflects the medical/ biological model - No theoretical assumptions about causation - Description of symptoms (patient report, direct observation, no assumption about unconscious process, clear, explicit criteria and decision rules ) - Improved reliability and validity Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 - Research planning process began in 1999 - Acknowledgment of limitations of categorical system - Encourage assessment of severity, not only presence of symptoms or disorders - Critics: call for a bolder move towards a dimensional understanding of mental disorders (the severity of the symptoms) LEC 3: Normal anxiety vs. Abnormal anxiety Anxiety - Prevalence: the number of people who have a disorder during a specified period of time. - The experience of anxiety is the same in normal and abnormal anxiety (severe symptoms, often, excessive - qualitatively different from normal anxiety) - Activated in response to perceived threat - Environment elicits response are the same - the way in which an individual perceive the situation - results in a normal or abnormal - Experience of anxiety arises from the activation of 3 inter-related systems (physical, cognitive and behavioural) when an individual perceive threat in their environment Physical system - Fight / flight response: mediated by Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) - Parasympathetic nervous system (PNS): predominantes in quite ‘rest’ and ‘digest’ conditions while the SNS drives the ‘fight or flight’ response in stressful situations (main purpose of Parasympathetic nervous system: conserve energy to be used later - regulate bodily function like digestion, urination) - after SNS (once there is no threat/ anxiety) - Mobilise physical resources to deal with threats symptoms appear: Heart rate and blood pressure increases (palpitations) Stress hormones and different neurotransmitter are released Breath speed up (dizziness, lightheaded) Reduction of saliva production (dry mouth) Body prepares us to fight or run away (muscle tension) Body cools down (sweat) Digestion slows down as blood flows away from stomach to muscles (upset / queasy tummy) Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 Cognitive system (mental processes) - How you pay attention, what you attend to and your interpretations of the situation/ object/ person 1. Perception of threat 2. Attentional shift towards the threat (eg. walking at night) 3. Hypervigilance to source of threatening information (preparing for fight/ flight situation) - Result in difficulty concentrating on other tasks - Anxiety as helpful ambiguous situations: rustle in the bushes, a person following you - Anxiety as unhelpful: test anxiety, speaking anxiety (no objective threat to personal safety) Yerkes Dodson - Optimal performance occurs when there is optimal arousal (a bit of anxiety) Behavioural system - Action stage: fight or flight - Escape or avoid response (safest and more frequently used option) - When cornered (use fight response - aggression) - Freeze response (some individuals freeze when they’re scared Does the behaviour system always subsequent to the physical and cognitive system: - Some model says you have a thought - feeling - leads to behaviour - Not always linear - Some start with behaviour level - impact cognition and emotions - Eg. avoidance: things innately learned - avoid those thing - develop cognition of being feared Normal vs abnormal anxiety Normal anxiety - Evolutionary level - anxiety is necessary for survival - Individual differences in anxiety Genetic sensitivity/ temperament: some have higher sensitivity based line to feel the level of anxiety, intensity of fear experienced varies (hypersensitivity - high level of anxiety) Learned experience: things feared vary across individuals (fear of spiders/ elevators) Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 Abnormal anxiety - Abnormal anxiety not qualitatively different from normal anxiety (similar physical/ cognitive/ behavioural) - The occurrence is either: Inappropriate: in the absence of objective threat (speaking anxiety) Excessive: more intense than the objective level of threat (severe anxiety response) => resulting in interference with functioning (social anxiety - can’t engage in groups - affecting job, social life - interfering with their life) - Characterised by overestimation of threat: Likelihood: perceived probability of a negative outcome (100% going to happen) Cost: perceived cost of negative outcome (how costly the outcome going to be for me) => often based on past experience, observations or instructions Eg. party - feel a level of anxiety (don’t know if i'm going to fit it, will people like me - hesitation) Normal: still go to party - feel uncomfortable at first but then when find a group to fit it - no more anxiety Abnormal: not attending the party - thinking that 100% they will make a fool out of themselves - cost me in huge way socially (high likelihood of avoidance) DSM IV: Anxiety Disorders - Anxiety disorders are categorised according to the focus of anxiety - Experience of exientry is the same / similar in each disorder - Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD) - being away from primary caregiver (children and adults) - Specific Phobia - scared of specific objects, situations (children and adults) - Social Phobia (Social Anxiety Disorder) - fear of negative social evaluation (children and adults) - Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD) - excessive and uncontrollable worry about a range of outcomes (children and adults) - Panic disorder - spontaneous panic attacks (children and adults) - Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) - obsession: intrusive thoughts or impulses, compulsion: ritualised behaviour to relieve the anxiety caused by obsessions (children and adults) - Post traumatic and Acute Stress Disorder (PTSD) - thoughts/ memories of traumatic experience (children and adults) 0 increase vulnerability to developing other disorders - High comorbidities present among anxiety disorder and depressive disorders Introduction to anxiety & related disorders Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 Panic attack - Not a diagnosis but relevant to all anxiety disorders - ⅓ of all people have experienced a panic attack - Discrete period of intense fear/ discomfort that appears abruptly and peaks within 10 minutes - Classic symptoms of autonomic arousal (sweating, saking, dizziness, shortness of breath, etc. ) - Cognitive fear: fear of dying, losing control, going mad, intense dread - Situationally bound/ expected/ cued (eg. phobia) - predictably occur in the presence or anticipation of a feared stimulus - Situationally unexpected/ uncued (eg. panic disorder) - intense experience, unknown triggers Panic disorder (PD) - Occur unpredictably with unknown trigger - Recurrent unexpected panic attacks (at least 2 with unknown trigger) - At least 1 of the attacks has been followed by 1 month or more of 1 or both of the following 1. Persistent concern/ worry about having another attack 2. A significant maladaptive change in behaviour related to attack (change behaviour to avoid - Panic related behaviours include: 1. Avoidance: - of a situations where panic is likely to happen - of activities that produce panic like sensations (symptoms) 2. Escape: - Safety behaviours: distraction, anxiety medication, mobile phone, significant others - Experience of panic is associated with catastrophic cognitions: i will die/ collapse/ lose control/ go mad, etc. - More common in females - Onset in adolescence/ young adulthood - Comorbidity: depression, agoraphobia (fear/ avoidance of situations/ events associated with panic - avoid physical acidity, quit job, become housebound) - Treatment seeking many years after onset: + Often confused as attribute this to medical factors (thought having heart problems/ lungs problems when going through panic attack) + Become housebound - can’t leave the house - Cognitive behavioural therapy: exposure and interoceptive exposure Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 - Attribute: to say or believe that smth is the result of a particular thing (regard sth as being caused by someone or sth) or a quality/ characteristic that someone or smth has (a quality or feature regarded as a characteristic of someone or sth) - thuộc tính, đặc tính LEC 4: Anxiety and related disorders Specific phobia - Extreme, disabling fear of specific objects or situations that pose little or no objective danger (eg. needle phobia) Situationally bound: - Triggers include: situation/ reminder of the situation - Subtypes: animal, natural environment (heights, water) , blood injection injury, situational type (trains, bridges), other type (clowns, spider) - Phobia: impacting individual’s functioning, interfering with something important to them - Arouse: evoke or awaken a feeling/ emotion, cause someone to have a particular feeling DSM 5 specific phobia: - Marked fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation (eg. flying, height, animals, seeing blood) - Phobic object pr situation almost always provokes immediate fear or anxiety - Actively avoided (in order to not feel the panic arousal) or endured with intense fear - Out of proportion to the actual danger and to sociocultural context - Persistent, typically lasting for 6 months or more - Causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social occupational or other important areas of functioning - Not better explained by another disorder Causes: - Classical conditioning: conditioning is not sufficient/ necessary as a cause (eg. dog phobia - not everyone attacked by dog develop a fear for dog) Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 - Some stimuli are more likely to become phobic than others (eg. knife, electricity - phobias are rare despite injury rates) (fear of holes - trypophobia - doesn’t cause any physical harm but more likely to become phobic) - Phobic fears: significant threat to survival during evolution - genetic predisposition Preparedness within our mind that we will fear certain thing for survival reason Ease of acquisition Innate, unconditional fears Observational learning - Common in children and more intense in adults Treatment: - Seeking contingent on exposure to stimuli - Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT): thought challenging (challenging cognitive distortion that individual might have on how likely they might not able to cope) and graded exposure DSM 5: social anxiety disorder - Intense fear of avoidance of social or performance situations where embarrassment may occur - A strong desire to convey a favourable impression to others and a marked insecurity about one’s ability to do so + Assume that others are highly critical (likelihood of being judge) + Place great importance on the evaluation of others (cost is huge if people judge me) + Negative self evaluation (self imposed and perception of others - often predict how others think of them) + Self preoccupation and attention (audience, internal and external - hand shaking) + Once anxious - fear visible signs of anxiety - overcompensate for the sign of anxiety (hand shaking - grip more strongly, not making eye contact - stare intensely showing that i'm trying to show i’m listening) - Social situations are avoided or endured with intense fear (avoid going to party or attend party with intense fear - safety behaviour: drinking or having somebody with them ) - Anxiety experienced is out of proportion to the actual threat (threat so high in this individuals - excessive amount of hyper arousal) - Persistent, lasting 6 months or more Downloaded by Theresa Sassine ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|14892509 - Causes clinically significant distress. Impairment in functioning - Not attributable to effect of a substance or other disorder and/ or is excessive 1. Individual present with a situation (eg. a party to attend) 2. Activates the assumptions about the social situation (eg. embarrassed myself) 3. Perceived the social danger (eg. then no one is going to like me) 4. Perceive themselve as a social object (eg. they can see that i’m nervous) 5.