Understanding-the-Self.docx-2.pdf

Understanding the Self Mark Jericho A. Jacinto I BS-ARCH1C LESSON 1: Understanding the Nature of Self: A Philosophical Overview 3. Aristotle (Greek Philosopher) A student of Plato, Aristotle opposed the Theo...

Understanding the Self Mark Jericho A. Jacinto I BS-ARCH1C LESSON 1: Understanding the Nature of Self: A Philosophical Overview 3. Aristotle (Greek Philosopher) A student of Plato, Aristotle opposed the Theory Introduction of Forms, asserting that reality is based on One interesting question that philosophy addresses is sensory perception. the nature of the self. Philosophers investigate both Defined self-realization as fulfilling man’s intrinsic and extrinsic elements of the self. According threefold nature: vegetative (physical), to Abella (2016), the self can be viewed in three ways: sentient (emotional), and rational (intellectual). 1. Self is Innate: The self is an important quality 4. Augustine (Early Christian Philosopher) present from birth, with self-awareness being natural. This perspective is associated with Integrated Plato’s ideas with Christian philosophers like Socrates, Plato, Augustine, theology, viewing the soul as the defining and Rene Descartes. element of humanity. 2. Self is Emergent: The self emerges from Believed in the existence of an inner interactions with the physical and social conscience guiding moral decisions, world, reflecting the empiricist views of emphasizing free will and accountability. Aristotle and John Locke. 3. Self is Integrated and Developing: The self 5. Rene Descartes (French Philosopher) comprises various components that change over time, as explored in Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s Known as the Father of Modern Philosophy The Phenomenology of Perception. and for his concept of Mind-Body Dualism. Argued that the self is a thinking entity distinct from the body, encapsulated in the phrase Different Philosophical Views of Self "Cogito, ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am"). 1. Socrates (Greek Philosopher) 6. John Locke (English Philosopher) Emphasized the nature of the human person Proposed the concept of the mind as a blank and the importance of the soul. slate (tabula rasa) shaped by experience. Advocated for self-knowledge through the Emphasized self-consciousness as the Socratic Method, believing that “an foundation of personal identity, stating that all unexamined life is not worth living.” humans are born with equal natural rights. Asserted that knowledge is equated with virtue, and ignorance leads to vice. 7. David Hume (Scottish Philosopher) 2. Plato (Greek Philosopher) An empiricist who argued that the self is a collection of changing sense impressions A student of Socrates, Plato introduced the rather than a stable entity. Theory of Forms, distinguishing between the Introduced the Bundle Theory, positing that world of forms (permanent ideas) and the there is no true self, only subjective world of senses (temporary replicas). perceptions. Identified three elements of the soul: reason, spirit (passion), and appetite (desire), arguing that justice in a person arises from harmony among these elements. UTS | 1 8. Immanuel Kant (German Philosopher) Summary Harmonized rationalist and empiricist views, This module provides a broader perspective on stating that knowledge arises from both sensory understanding the self. The self can be viewed as experience and conceptual understanding. innate, emergent, or integrated and developing, as Argued that the self is a unifying subject that discussed by various philosophers. While some view the organizes experiences, transcending mere self as an immortal soul, others see it as a product of sensory perception. the brain or a collection of experiences and behaviors. Despite differing opinions, most philosophers agree that 9. Sigmund Freud (Austrian Psychoanalyst) self-knowledge is essential for a happy and meaningful life. Upon completion of this module, you are Although not a philosopher, Freud's views on the encouraged to develop your own philosophy of self self are influential. He described the self as that can guide you toward self-realization. multilayered: conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. Believed that unconscious drives significantly influence behavior and self-understanding. 10. Gilbert Ryle (British Philosopher) Criticized Descartes’ dualism, proposing that the mind and body are linked and that self is revealed through behavior. Advocated the idea "I act, therefore, I am," emphasizing that mental states are expressed through actions. 11. Paul Churchland (Canadian Philosopher) A proponent of Eliminative Materialism, Churchland argued that the self is inseparable from the brain. Contended that understanding the mind requires understanding its physiological basis. 12. Maurice Merleau-Ponty (French Phenomenological Philosopher) Emphasized lived experiences and the body as a subject of perception rather than an object. Argued that consciousness, the body, and the world are intertwined, leading to the notion of embodied subjectivity. 2 LESSON 2: Sociological Perspective Development of the Self: M2: Lecture Notes Unity of “I” and “Me”: The full development of the self is attained when the “I” and the “me” are Sociology as a Scientific Study united. Social Experience: The self is not present at Definition and Purpose: Sociology, as a birth. It develops with social experience through scientific study of social groups and human language, gestures, and objects used to relationships, generates new insights into the communicate meaningfully. interconnectedness between ourselves and Role-Taking: Understanding the world from other people. others' points of view, creating roles, and Charles Horton Cooley’s Concept: According anticipating responses lead to self-awareness. to Charles Horton Cooley, we possess a Change: The self continues to change with looking-glass self. This concept suggests that social experience. the people with whom we interact act as a mirror through which we view ourselves. ○ Threefold Process of Self-Identity: Mead detailed the development of the self in a Conceiving an Idea: We begin three-stage process: by forming an idea of how we present ourselves to others. Preparatory Stage (0-3 years old): Children Analyzing Perceptions: We have no sense of self. They are just preparing then analyze how others for role-taking. perceive us. Play Stage (3 to 5 years old): The self Creating an Image: Finally, we emerges as children pretend to take the roles of create an image of ourselves specific people or significant others. In this based on this analysis. stage, the self is developing. ○ Outcome: Our self-identity or self-image Game Stage (begins in the early school is an outcome of what we think others years; about 8 or 9 years old): Children think about us. become concerned about and take into account in their behavior the generalized others. These The self is an outcome of what we think others think refer to the attitudes, viewpoints, demands, and about us. expectations of society, including cultural norms and values used as references in evaluating George Herbert Mead’s Theory of the Social Self ourselves. During this stage, the self is now present. George Herbert Mead’s theory presents that the self has two divisions: the “I” and the “me”. The Self as a Product of Modern and Postmodern Societies The I Modern Societies (According to Gerry Lanuza, 2004): Description: The subjective element and the active side of the self. Characteristics: In modern societies, the Traits: Represents the spontaneous and unique attainment and stability of self-identity are freely traits of the individual. chosen. It is no longer restricted by customs and traditions. The Me Opportunities and Challenges: ○ Opportunities: The newfound freedom Description: The objective element of the self. offers infinite possibilities for Traits: Represents the internalized attitudes and self-cultivation. demands of other people and the individual’s ○ Challenges: Problems such as awareness of those demands. alienation and dehumanization of the 3  self can appear, hindering the full development of human potential. Need for Authentic Core: There is a need to discover the “authentic core” of the self for individuals to work towards self-realization. Postmodern Societies: ○ Characteristics: While individuals in modern societies seek a solid and stable self-identity, postmodern individuals aim to avoid fixation and keep options open for self-improvement. ○ Jean Baudrillard’s Explanation: Prestige Symbols: Postmodern individuals achieve self-identity through prestige symbols that they consume. Influence of Cultural Practices: Advertising and mass media greatly influence individuals to consume goods not for their primary value and utility but to provide a feeling of goodness and power when compared with others. Consumer Behavior: The postmodern person has become an insatiable consumer and may never be satisfied. This results in a never-ending search for prestige in postmodern society. ◆ Therefore, the self may be a never-ending search for prestige in postmodern society. 4 LESSON 3: Anthropological Perspective certainly; but equally, and more significantly, without culture, no Holistic View of Human Nature men.” Definition: Anthropology holds a holistic view of Social Identities human nature, focusing on how cultural and biological processes interact to shape human Personal and Social Positions: experience. ○ Self-Perception: People have their own Approach: Anthropology integrates both cultural and others’ positions in society. and biological perspectives to examine human ○ Confirmation Seeking: Individuals seek nature, distinguishing itself from other disciplines confirmation from others to affirm their through this comprehensive approach. positions on the social landscape. Criteria for Distinguishing Individuals: James L. Peacock on Anthropology ○ Factors: Age, gender, kinship, ethnicity, and language are used to distinguish Quote: According to James L. Peacock, individuals from one another. “anthropology encroaches on the territory of the ○ Social Landscapes: Differences and sciences as well as the humanities, and similarities in characteristics among transcends the conventional boundaries of both individuals are used to construct social while addressing questions to the distant past landscapes and indicate each person’s and the pressing present – perhaps with place or identity. implications for the future.” Significance: This definition highlights Identity Toolbox anthropology's role in understanding the interconnections and interdependence of Definition: The “identity toolbox” refers to the biological and cultural aspects of human features of a person’s identity (such as gender, experience across different times and places. age, or personal appearance) that individuals choose to emphasize in constructing their social The Self as Embedded in Culture self. Universal Characteristics: Kinship, gender, Clifford Geertz’s Reformulation: and age are almost universally used. ○ Model: Clifford Geertz (1973) offered a Variable Characteristics: Ethnicity, personal symbolic interpretative model of culture. appearance, and socioeconomic status may not ○ Definition: He defines culture as “a always be used in every society (Robbins, system of inherited conceptions 2012). expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, Personal Naming and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life.” Universal Practice: Personal naming is a ○ Impact on Man: universal practice with numerous cross-cultural Webs of Significance: Geertz variations. agrees with Max Weber that Importance: Personal names individualize a “man is an animal suspended in person and legitimize them as a member of the webs of significance he himself family and society (Haviland, Prins, Walrath, & has spun,” where these webs McBride, 2013). are symbols of culture. Interdependence: Man is Identity Struggles defined by his genetic potential shaped into accomplishments Concept: made possible by culture. ○ Term Coined By: Anthony F. Wallace Quote: Geertz emphasized, and Raymond Fogelson. “Without men, no culture, ○ Definition: Characterizes interaction in which there is a discrepancy between 5  the identity a person claims to possess Postmodern Context: The postmodern man and the identity attributed to them by has shifted away from striving to become an others. autonomous and active part of the process of ○ Defense: Individuals must be able to self-determination and identification with one’s defend their identities if they are own community. threatened. Confusion and Crisis: ○ Postmodern Identity: Individuals may experience confusion when self-identification clashes with inherited collective identification due to cultural changes and conflicting norms and values. ○ Golubovic (2011): Crisis of Identities: More serious when universal values and moral principles are influenced by politics and ideology. Self-Identification: Individuals must overcome obstacles such as traditionally established habits and parental-imposed self-images. ○ Cognitive Anthropologists (van Meijl, 2008): Stable Self: To maintain a stable self in a multicultural society, individuals may need to internalize divergent cultural models and reject or suppress conflicting self-presentations. Concepts of Self in Different Societies Egocentric View: ○ Definition: The self is seen as an autonomous and distinct individual. Sociocentric View: ○ Definition: The self is seen as contingent on a situation or social setting, emphasizing that there is no intrinsic self with enduring qualities (Robbins, 2012). Current Philosophical Task of the Postmodern Man Socratic Message: The most important philosophical task is to “work on yourself,” reflecting the Socratic message “know thyself” (Golubovic, 2011). 6 LESSON 4: Psychological Perspective Understanding the self during adolescence involves Ideal Self: various psychological theories that explore how ○ The person one aspires to be, including individuals perceive and construct their identities. These goals, ambitions, and self-perceptions of theories address self-concept, identity, and personality, how one should be. highlighting the importance of self-awareness and self-integration. Here’s an overview of key psychological Rogers posited that happiness and self-fulfillment arise theories related to self-understanding: when the real self aligns closely with the ideal self. A significant discrepancy between the two can lead to William James' Concept of Self: The Me-Self dissatisfaction and anxiety. and the I-Self Multiple Versus Unified Self, True Versus False William James introduced a dualistic approach to the Self self: The concept of multiple selves addresses how I-Self (The Thinking Self): individuals present different aspects of themselves in various contexts: This represents the "pure ego" or the self that is aware of its own existence and thoughts. It's the Multiple Selves: reflective aspect of the self that knows and ○ Adolescents often exhibit different contemplates who one is. personas depending on their roles and relationships, leading to challenges in Me-Self (The Empirical Self) achieving a unified self-concept. True Self vs. False Self: This refers to the self that is experienced ○ True Self: Represents an individual's through daily life and interactions. It has three authentic self, exposed in genuine and sub-categories: intimate contexts. ○ False Self: A protective facade ○ Material Self: Includes one's physical presented to meet social expectations or attributes and material possessions, gain approval from others. For example, which contribute to self-image. adolescents might show a false self ○ Social Self: Represents how one acts during social interactions to impress and is perceived in different social others. contexts. This aspect changes depending on social settings (e.g., Donald Winnicott emphasized the importance of these behavior at home vs. school). true and false selves in understanding adolescent ○ Spiritual Self: The innermost part of the development. self, encompassing core values, purpose, conscience, and moral The Self as Proactive and Agentic behavior. Understanding this self requires deep introspection. Albert Bandura's concept of agency highlights how individuals actively shape their lives: Carl Rogers' Self Theory: Real and Ideal Self Agency: Carl Rogers focused on self-concept, the perception of ○ Encompasses the ability to influence oneself, and its impact on personal fulfillment: one's own development and adaptation through intentional actions and Real Self: self-regulation. ○ The actual self, comprising one’s true attributes and behaviors. It reflects how one perceives their own current state. 7  Core Features of Agency: Anima and Animus: ○ Intentionality: Acting with purpose and ○ Anima: The feminine aspects within the anticipating outcomes. male psyche. ○ Forethought: Anticipating the ○ Animus: The masculine aspects within consequences of actions. the female psyche. ○ Self-reactiveness: Making choices and ○ These archetypes influence how motivating oneself. individuals relate to the opposite gender ○ Self-reflectiveness: Evaluating one’s and understand their own gender actions and thoughts. identity. Self: Self-efficacy is a key aspect, referring to an individual's ○ The central archetype that represents belief in their ability to accomplish tasks, influencing their the unified whole of the personality. It overall motivation and behavior. integrates various parts of the psyche, including the persona, shadow, anima, The Self as the Central Archetype and animus, creating a cohesive identity. The ego is the conscious aspect of the Carl Jung introduced the idea of archetypes, which are self, while the self is the totality of the universal, symbolic models within the psyche: personality. Archetypes: Jung believed that achieving a balance between these ○ Represent innate, universal patterns archetypes is crucial for psychological health and and potentials within the psyche. The personal development. self is seen as the central archetype, guiding the integration of various parts Sigmund Freud's Construction of Self and of the personality throughout life. Personality Jung believed that the self is not a static entity but a Sigmund Freud's theory of personality involves the dynamic center that integrates various aspects of interplay of three structures: personality. Id: Carl Jung's Archetypes and the Self ○ The primal part of the personality that seeks immediate gratification of basic Carl Jung expanded on the understanding of the self urges and desires. It operates on the through his concept of archetypes, which are universal pleasure principle, acting impulsively symbols or themes that reside in the collective and without regard to societal rules. unconscious—a layer of the unconscious mind shared Ego: among all humans. Jung identified several major ○ The rational component that operates archetypes: on the reality principle. The ego mediates between the demands of the Persona: id and the constraints of reality, making ○ Represents the social mask or roles decisions and controlling impulses in a individuals present to others. It is the socially acceptable manner. outward identity that people show in Superego: various social contexts, often influenced ○ The moral component that internalizes by societal expectations. societal norms and values. It functions Shadow: as a "conscience," striving for perfection ○ Consists of repressed or socially and imposing feelings of guilt or pride unacceptable aspects of the psyche. It based on adherence to moral standards. represents the darker, hidden side of the personality that individuals may not openly acknowledge but which can influence behavior. 8 Freud used the term "ego strength" to describe the ego's ○ Developing initiative and leadership ability to balance the conflicting demands of the id and abilities versus feelings of guilt from superego. An imbalance or unresolved conflict among overstepping boundaries. these structures can lead to personality disorders and Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age, 6-12 psychological distress. years): ○ Mastery of skills and gaining Freud also proposed psychosexual stages of competence versus feelings of inferiority development, each associated with different conflicts: if not encouraged or successful. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 1. Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year): 12-18 years): ○ Pleasure derived from oral activities ○ Forming a cohesive identity and sense (sucking, biting). Overindulgence or of self versus confusion about one's role frustration can lead to oral fixation and direction in life. issues such as smoking or overeating. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood, 2. Anal Stage (1 to 3 years): 18-40 years): ○ Pleasure related to bowel control and ○ Establishing meaningful relationships toilet training. Fixations may lead to versus experiencing loneliness and anal-retentive traits (e.g., obsession with isolation. cleanliness) or anal-expulsive traits Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle (e.g., messiness). Adulthood, 40-65 years): 3. Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years): ○ Contributing to society and future ○ Interest in genitalia and differences generations versus stagnation and between genders. Fixations can impact self-absorption. sexual behaviors and relationships later Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood, 65+ in life. years): 4. Latency Stage (6 to 12 years): ○ Reflecting on one's life with a sense of ○ Sexual energy is repressed, and fulfillment versus regret and despair children focus on academic and social over missed opportunities. skills. 5. Genital Stage (Adolescence to Adulthood): Erikson highlighted that identity formation during ○ Reawakening of sexual interests and adolescence is a crucial phase for developing a stable the pursuit of mature sexual sense of self, which influences later stages of life. relationships. Problems during earlier stages can affect sexual functioning. Summary Erik Erikson's Theory of Identity Development These theories collectively offer a comprehensive view of the self's development and its various facets: Erik Erikson expanded on Freud's ideas by focusing on psychosocial development across the lifespan, Jung’s archetypes provide a framework for emphasizing the role of social relationships and identity understanding different aspects of the psyche formation: and their integration. Freud’s model outlines the internal conflicts and Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy, 0-1 year): developmental stages shaping personality. ○ Developing trust in caregivers leads to a Erikson’s stages emphasize the social and sense of security. Mistrust can result in psychological tasks essential for identity fear and suspicion. formation and personal growth. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood, 1-3 years): Understanding these perspectives helps in ○ Gaining independence and comprehending how individuals develop their self-confidence versus feelings of self-concept, navigate conflicts, and achieve a sense of shame or doubt if overly controlled. identity throughout life. Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 3-6 years): 9 Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development 5. Adolescence (12-18 years): Identity vs. Role outlines eight stages, each characterized by a specific Confusion conflict that must be resolved for healthy psychological development. These stages span from infancy to old age Challenge: Adolescents explore different roles, and highlight the social and emotional challenges values, and goals to form their own identity. individuals face at different points in their lives. Support from family and peers helps them develop a clear sense of self. 1. Infancy (0-1 year): Trust vs. Mistrust Positive Outcome: Strong sense of identity and direction. Challenge: Infants learn to trust their Negative Outcome: Role confusion and caregivers and their environment. Consistent uncertainty about one’s place in the world. and reliable care fosters trust and security. Positive Outcome: Trust in others and a sense 6. Young Adulthood (18-40 years): Intimacy vs. of security. Isolation Negative Outcome: Fear, suspicion, and mistrust. Challenge: Young adults seek to form deep, meaningful relationships. Successful 2. Toddlerhood (1-3 years): Autonomy vs. relationships contribute to emotional stability and Shame and Doubt connection. Positive Outcome: Stable, fulfilling Challenge: Toddlers begin to assert their relationships and intimacy. independence and explore their abilities. Negative Outcome: Isolation and loneliness. Encouragement leads to self-confidence. Positive Outcome: Autonomy and 7. Middle Adulthood (40-65 years): Generativity self-confidence. vs. Stagnation Negative Outcome: Shame, doubt, and dependency. Challenge: Middle-aged adults strive to contribute to society and support the next 3. Preschool (3-6 years): Initiative vs. Guilt generation. Generativity involves mentoring, teaching, and creating a legacy. Challenge: Children start to take initiative and Positive Outcome: Contribution to society and make decisions. Support and encouragement a sense of purpose. help them develop leadership skills. Negative Outcome: Stagnation and a sense of Positive Outcome: Initiative and leadership. unfulfillment. Negative Outcome: Guilt and inhibition. 8. Late Adulthood (65+ years): Integrity vs. 4. School Age (6-12 years): Industry vs. Despair Inferiority Challenge: Older adults reflect on their lives Challenge: School-aged children develop and assess their achievements and regrets. A competence and skills through their work and sense of integrity comes from feeling satisfied interactions at school. Encouragement leads to with one’s life. a sense of achievement. Positive Outcome: Sense of fulfillment, Positive Outcome: Industry, competence, and wisdom, and acceptance. achievement. Negative Outcome: Regret, despair, and Negative Outcome: Inferiority and feelings of feelings of wasted opportunities. inadequacy. 10 LESSON 5: Western and Eastern View of Self 2. Buddhism: Western Concepts of Self ○ Philosophy: The human person is composed of five components: matter, Convergence: Currently, there is a convergence sensation, perception, mental in Western conceptualizations of the self among constructs, and consciousness. philosophers, sociologists, anthropologists, and Buddhism posits no permanent self or psychologists. New frameworks and soul. Ignorance of impermanence leads methodologies are used to examine the self, to the illusion of selfhood, causing focusing on multivariate and situational contexts. suffering. Nirvana, or transcendence, is Frank Johnson (1985) describes the qualitative achieved through meditation (Ho, 1995). aspects of the Western self as: 3. Confucianism: ○ Analytic: Emphasis on causal links and ○ Philosophy: The core principle is the part-to-whole relationships. Golden Rule: “Do not do to others what ○ Monotheistic: Belief in one Supreme you would not want others to do to you.” Being and the dichotomy of existence The self is relational, defined by how (e.g., beautiful/ugly, kind/cruel). one interacts with others. Proper ○ Individualistic: Coexistence of conduct is vital, with emphasis on favorable and unfavorable conditions self-cultivation and moral character inherent in personal freedom, with self through understanding one's social role as a sovereign subject. and responsibilities. ○ Materialistic: Focus on material things. 4. Taoism: ○ Rationalistic: Favoring a ○ Philosophy: The self is an extension of rational-empirical approach over the cosmos rather than social magical and superstitious explanations. relationships. Taoism teaches that aligning with the Tao (Nature) leads to David Y.F. Ho (1995) characterizes the Western harmony. The ideal is a selfless self as: existence where distinctions between "I" ○ Individualistic: Deeply conscious of its and "other" dissolve, promoting balance uniqueness, motivation, and free will. and spontaneity in life (Garcia, 2008; The self is central within the individual, Ho, 1995). through which the world is perceived. The self is distinct from others, implying Western and Eastern Conceptions of the Self: complete ownership and sovereignty, Comparison leading to a coherent and stable self if conditions are favorable. Western Thought: ○ Frame of Reference: Separation Eastern Concepts of Self between philosophy and religion/spirituality. 1. Hinduism: ○ Source of Knowledge: Emphasis on ○ Philosophy: Brahman is the Absolute reason rather than faith. Reality, and Atman (soul or spirit) is ○ Emphasis: Distinctions and oppositions. identical to Brahman. The goal is to ○ View of Universe and Life: Linear. achieve knowledge of Brahman. The ○ View of Self: Egocentric. Law of Karma dictates that actions ○ Ideal (Goal in Life): Self-actualization result in good or bad outcomes, through personal growth. influencing reincarnation. The ultimate ○ Cultural Framework: Individualism. aim is to reach Nirvana, a state of liberation from rebirth (Garcia, 2008). 11  Western Self as Individualistic: Freedom and personal sovereignty lead to both opportunities Eastern Thought: and potential frustrations. ○ Frame of Reference: Religion and Western Self as Materialistic and philosophy are intertwined. Rationalistic: Focus on material things and ○ Source of Knowledge: Trust in intuition rational-empirical approaches. and religious beliefs. ○ Emphasis: Commonalities and The Self in Four Great Systems of Eastern Thought harmonies. ○ View of Universe and Life: Circular. 1. Hinduism: Self-realization through union with ○ View of Self: Sociocentric. Brahman, leading to dissolution of individual ○ Ideal (Goal in Life): Achieve a balanced identity. life and find one's role in society. 2. Buddhism: No permanent self; realization of ○ Cultural Framework: Collectivism. impermanence leads to Nirvana. 3. Confucianism: Relational self, emphasizing Cultural Framework: Individualism vs. Collectivism proper conduct and self-cultivation. 4. Taoism: Self as an extension of the cosmos, Individualism: achieving harmony with the Tao. ○ Self: A distinct, autonomous entity; independent part of the universe and society. ○ Core Values: Independence and self-reliance. ○ Goals: Prioritize personal goals over group goals. ○ Social Relations: Characterized by exchange relationships. ○ Behaviors: Uniqueness, sense of direction, and personal success are valued. Collectivism: ○ Self: Integrated part of the universe and society. ○ Core Values: Interdependence and connectedness. ○ Goals: No distinction between personal and group goals, or personal goals are subordinate to group goals. ○ Social Relations: Characterized by communal relationships. ○ Behaviors: Conformity and obedience are essential; duty towards others is important. Aspects of the Western Self Western Self as Analytic: Focus on causal links and part-to-whole relationships. Western Self as Monotheistic: Emphasis on the belief in one Supreme Being and dichotomies in existence. 12