Understanding The Self: Chapter 1 PDF

UNDERSTANDING THE SELF: CHAPTER 1 ARISTOTLE ➔ Soul is the essence of the self INTRODUCTION TO SELF AND ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS...

UNDERSTANDING THE SELF: CHAPTER 1 ARISTOTLE ➔ Soul is the essence of the self INTRODUCTION TO SELF AND ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS ➔ All living creatures have a soul PSYCHOLOGY ➔ The body and soul are separate entities ➔ Self – awareness is achieved through experience. ➔ The soul and self cannot be separated SOCIOLOGY ➔ To him the self also has three parts ➔ The Self is influenced by society ◆ Vegetative CONTEMPORARY ANTHROPOLOGIST ◆ Sentient ➔ Culture and the self are complimentary ◆ Rational ➔ You believe in what you believe because of your culture ➔ Vegetative ◆ Physical body PHILOSOPHY ➔ Sentient ➔ Ancient Greek word “Philosophos” ◆ The desire ◆ Greek word: Philo (love) & Sophia (wisdom) ◆ Feelings ➔ Literally translates to "Love of Wisdom" ➔ Rational ➔ Love of Wisdom ◆ This is what makes the man human ◆ Desire for truth ◆ The self chooses, discovers, decides ◆ Never ending questions about the nature of human ➔ We can attain self through Virtuous existence ➔ Actions ➔ Inquisitive or curious mind ◆ Discover the ultimate causes, reasons, and principles of ST. AUGUSTINE ➔ The self is the spouse of the soul everything ➔ I am doubting therefore I am ➔ Exploring all areas of knowledge ➔ Convinced that the self is known by only knowing god ◆ Religion, psychology, politics, physics, medicine ➔ Philosophers are interested in the nature of the self RENE DESCARTES ◆ Always look for answers ➔ I think therefore I am ➔ Two dimensions ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS ◆ Thinking entity SOCRATES ◆ Physical body ➔ Teacher DAVID HUME ➔ He was the first thinker ➔ There is no self ➔ He questioned himself: Who am I? ➔ Introspection will discover that there is no self ➔ The self is an immortal self ➔ Introspection is just us criticizing based on what we think ➔ We possess an immortal soul ➔ Evaluation includes the thoughts of the society around us; ➔ Physical vs ideal realm there is criteria ➔ Dichotomous realms “2 realms” ➔ Identity is imagination ➔ Physical self ◆ Changes/imperfect JOHN LOCKE ➔ The self is consciousness ➔ Physical changes ➔ Tabula rasa – blank slate at birth ◆ Growth and requires sustenance food) ➔ Self is from memories and consciousness ➔ Ideal realm ➔ Reason is used to gain knowledge; knowledge can allow us ◆ Eternal/ doesn’t change to introspect our memories. ◆ Totally the opposite of the physical realm ➔ If you lose memories, you lose yourself ◆ Fed with knowledge, wisdom and goodness ➔ When the physical self is gone the ideal self will continue SIGMUND FREUD ➔ The self is an immortal soul ➔ The self is multilayered ➔ Self = soul ◆ Conscious ◆ Unconscious PLATO ◆ Preconscious ➔ Believed in his teacher Socrates ➔ Conscious self ➔ The self is an immortal soul with three parts ◆ What we want the society to see and ➔ Physical Appetite, Spirit, Reason ◆ What conform to it ◆ Can be observed when the self thinks ➔ Unconsciousness ➔ Physical appetite ◆ What our instincts tell us ◆ Biological needs of the self (sex, food and water) ◆ Contains the basic instinctual drives ➔ Spirit ◆ The lowest level since it is what is kept hidden and filtered ◆ When the self needs emotion ◆ Biggest level since it is our initial reaction to all situations ➔ The 3 can come into conflict ➔ Preconscious ➔ It is the reason to be a referee ◆ Thoughts that can easily be brought to think through ➔ Reason stimulus. ◆ Sorts things out = justice ➔ Sometimes the “self” forgets reason and allows the spirit PAUL CHURCHLAND and physical appetite to manipulate us ➔ The brain is the self. ➔ It must be balanced within the 3 ➔ If you get brain damage, you lose your identity ➔ Eliminative materialism ◆ The self is inseparable from the body  IMMANUEL KANT ME - SELF ➔ We construct the self ➔ Is the empirical self, which refers to a person's personal ➔ Still believes in consciousness experiences and is further divided into subcategories: ➔ The “self” constructs its own reality MATERIAL SELF ➔ The self transcends experience because it can experience ➔ The material self is attributed to an individual's physical things that are not limited to the senses. attributes and material possessions that contribute to one's GILBERT RYLE self-image. ➔ The self is the way people behave SOCIAL SELF ➔ I act therefore I am ➔ The social self refers to who a person is and how he or she ➔ The self is how we act in certain situations acts in social situations. James believes that people have ➔ The entire system of thoughts, emotions and actions are different social selves depending on the context of a social situation. For example, a student may act differently in school the self. and at home with his or her family. MAURICE MARLEU-PONTY SPIRITUAL SELF ➔ The self is embodied subjectivity ➔ The spiritual self refers to the most intimate and important ➔ All knowledge is based on the phenomena of experience part of the self, which includes the person's purpose, core ➔ The I is a single integrated core identity; a combination of values, conscience, and moral behavior. James believes that the ◆ Physical Structures path to understanding the spiritual self requires introspection. ◆ Emotional Structures CARL ROGERS’ SELF THEORY: THE REAL AND IDEAL SELF ➔ The mind and body are unified ➔ Another aspect of self-understanding that is important in ➔ What people are aware of is contained within consciousness adolescent years focuses on self-concept. ➔ Consciousness, the world and the human body are ➔ This refers to the image of oneself. intertwined in the self. ➔ Psychologist Carl Rogers defines the self as a flexible and ➔ It is how we perceive the world in relation to our changing perception of personal identity. ➔ The self is the center of experience (Rathus, 2017). consciousness that makes the self. ➔ He suggests that the self develops from interactions with UNDERSTANDING THE SELF: CHAPTER 2 significant people and awareness of one's own characteristics and level of functioning. According to Rogers, human beings PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF are always striving for self-fulfillment of self-actualization. For a young person, it is almost a sin, or at least a danger, to be too ➔ When the needs of the self are denied, severe anxiety may preoccupied with himself; but for the aging person, it is a duty and a arise. necessity to devote serious attention to himself. ➔ Central to achieving self-actualization - Carl Jung is the development of self-concept. ➔ The development of self-understanding in adolescence involves a number of theories about the: ➔ Rogers suggests two components of ◆ Self self-concept: ◆ Identity ◆ Real self ◆ Personality ◆ Ideal self. ➔ Theories about the self give way to the identification of which characteristics of the self are relevant and the understanding of how these characteristics are related to each other. REAL SELF ➔ They foster discourse on the different conceptualizations of ➔ Consists of all the ideas, including the awareness of what one is identity based on different sociocultural contexts (Santrock, and what one can do. 2002). ➔ In Rogers' view, the closer the ideal self to the real self, the more ➔ This chapter outlines the psychological theories that influence fulfilled and happier the individual becomes. the way people understand the self. ➔ As the following theories illustrate, adolescents construct their IDEAL SELF own understandings of themselves well by integrating the ➔ Is the person's conception of what one should be or what one information into their lives. aspires to be, which includes one's goals and ambitions in life. ➔ Understanding of the self is highest when the different parts of ➔ When the ideal self is far from the real self, the person becomes the self become integrative. unhappy and dissatisfied (Atkinson et al., 2000). ➔ Consistent with Carl Roger's theory of self, an important MULTIPLE VS UNIFIED SELF, TRUE VS FALSE SELF aspect of understanding the self is self- awareness – ➔ Self-understanding in adolescents also includes ◆ How much an adolescent is aware of his or her own conceptualizing the self as multiple or unified and true or psychological make-up false. ◆ What makes him or her unique as a person, ➔ The construction of multiple selves varies across different ◆ His or her strengths and weaknesses. interpersonal and intrapersonal roles and relationships. WILLIAM JAMES CONCEPT OF SELF: ➔ Coping with different selves constitutes a formidable task among THE ME - SELF AND THE I - SELF adolescents. “The greatest discovery of my generation is that a human ➔ These challenges contribute heavily to a young person's being can alter his life by altering his attitude” struggle for a unified self. ➔ Wiliam James suggests that the self is divided into two ➔ The task of integrating one's multiple selves naturally causes categories: concern. ◆ I-Self ➔ Given the enormous challenges of self-integration, it is ◆ Me-Self. important that adolescents are supported in their effort to create a consistent, coherent, or unified theory of the self I - SELF (Santrock, 2002). ➔ Refers to the self that knows who he or she is, which is also ➔ Winnicott has found that the self is composed of the true self called the thinking self. ➔ The I-Self reflects the soul of a person or the mind, which is and the false self. also called the pure ego. ➔ The function of the false self is to hide and protect the true PERSONA self. ➔ The persona refers to the social roles that individuals present to ➔ Researchers have found that adolescents' perceptions of others. themselves can change depending on the situation. SHADOW ➔ For instance, adolescents are more likely to show their false self ➔ The shadow refers to the repressed thoughts that are socially during dating situations and are likely to show their true self unacceptable. when they are with their family and close friends. ➔ This archetype is often considered the dark side of the psyche. ➔ In other words, adolescents display a false self to impress ANIMA/ANIMUS others. Adolescents develop different selves in various relational ➔ The anima is the feminine side of the male psyche, whereas the contexts. animus is the masculine side of the female psyche. THE SELF AS PROACTIVE ANDAGENTIC SELF ➔ Albert Bandura (2001) posits that humans,through their agency, ➔ The self is the central archetype that unites all parts of the are perceived as proactive agents of experiences. psyche. ➔ Agency embodies the endowments, belief systems, ➔ The ego is the individual's conscious perception of the self. self-regulatory capabilities, and distributed structures and SIGMUND FREUD’S CONSTRUCTION OF SELF AND functions through which personal influence is exercised, rather PERSONALITY than residing as a discrete entity. ➔ According to Sigmund Freud, the dynamic forces within the self ➔ The core features of agency enable people to play a part in are many and in inevitable conflict. their self-development, adaptation, and self-renewal. ➔ He argues that the mind is composed of three structures through ➔ The main features of human agency are which personality is formed: ◆ Intentionality ◆ Id ◆ Forethought ◆ Ego ◆ Self-reactiveness ◆ Superego. ◆ Self-reflectiveness. ➔ It appears that the id is the devil within the self, the superego INTENTIONALITY is the angel, and the ego is the person in the middle. ➔ Intentionality refers to acts done intentionally. ➔ The id, ego, and superego are often in conflict with each ➔ Intentions center on plans of action with the anticipation of other. possible outcomes. ➔ Freud uses the term "ego strength" to refer to the ego's ability to resolve the conflict between the three structures. FORETHOUGHT ➔ If this constant state of conflict is unresolved, personality ➔ Forethought enables the person to anticipate the likely problems may arise. consequences of prospective actions. ➔ Through the exercise of forethought, people are guided in their ID actions in the anticipation of future events. ➔ The id refers to the component of the personality characterized by its need to satisfy basic urges and desires. SELF-REACTIVENESS ➔ Freud believes that the id is the pleasure-seeking side, ➔ Self-reactiveness involves making choices and choosing impulsive, child-like, and demands instant gratification. appropriate courses of action, as well as motivating and regulating them. EGO ➔ The ego refers to the I and operates on the reality principle and SELF-REFLECTIVENESS controls the di. ➔ Self-reflectiveness gives the person the ability to reflect upon, ➔ The ego can conform with existing societal considerations. and the adequacy of, his or her thoughts and actions. ➔ People are not only agents of action but also self-examiners of SUPEREGO their own functioning. ➔ The superego refers to the "conscience" and "moral judge" of EFFICACY one's conduct. ➔ Efficacy beliefs are the foundation of human agency. ➔ Violation of rules leads to feelings of guilt. ➔ Self-efficacy refers to the individual's belief that he or she is ➔ It strives for perfection rather than pleasure. capable of performing a task that influences whether he or she THE THREE STRUCTURES OF PERSONALITY will think pessimistically or optimistically and in ways that are self-enhancing or self-hindering. ➔ Efficacy beliefs also play a central role in self-regulation, which is the ability of an individual to control his or her behavior without having to rely on others for help. THE SELF AS THE CENTRAL ARCHETYPE ➔ Central to Carl Jung's theory of the self is the concept of archetypes. ➔ Basically, archetypes are the universal models after which roles are patterned. ➔ The archetype represents the hidden potentialities of the psyche or total personality. ➔ Jung suggests that the psyche continues to develop throughout life, but it starts to show a definite form and content during adolescence. ➔ According to Jung, archetypes reside in the personal ➔ In Freud's view, the id, ego, and superego develop in a series of unconscious (forgotten experiences) that is common to all stages. human beings known as the collective unconscious. ➔ Freud calls these the psychosexual stages of development ➔ For Jung, there are four major archetypes: ‘ that progress through five stages. ◆ Persona ➔ Each stage is associated with conflicts that the individual must ◆ Shadow resolve so that he or she can successfully move on to the next ◆ Animus/ Anima stage. ◆ Self. ➔ Freud also believes that each stage has needs and that ➔ Erikson's theory proposes that individuals go through eight dissatisfaction of needs may result in fixation that can have psychosocial stages of development. lasting negative effects on one's personality. ➔ Although Erikson believed that each stage is important, he ORAL STAGE gives particular emphasis on the development of the ego. ➔ From birth up to the first year of life ➔ The ego is the positive force that contributes to identity ➔ Pleasure from oral activities like sucking and biting formation and lays the foundation for certain strengths and ➔ Overindulgence leads to: virtues in life, such as hope, will, purpose, competence, ◆ Overeating fidelity, love, care, and wisdom. ◆ Smoking ➔ Each stage consists of developmental tasks that one needs to ◆ Alcoholism accomplish to develop successfully. ➔ Dissatisfaction may lead to: ➔ During each stage, an individual also experiences life crises, ◆ Oral aggressive personality disorder which could have negative consequences if not properly Sarcasm resolved. Tactlessness. TRUST VS MISTRUST ANAL STAGE ➔ Trust versus mistrust is the first psychosocial stage of ➔ Second year of life development, occurring in the first year of life. ➔ Derives pleasure from the elimination of body waste ➔ According to Erikson, the child will develop trust if he or she is ➔ Anal Fixations can lead to: properly cared for. ◆ Obsession with cleanliness ➔ If the child is not well cared for, mistrust is likely to develop. ◆ Anal-retentive Personality Disorder – Cleanliness AUTONOMY VS SHAME AND DOUBT Anal expulsion personality disorder – Clumsiness ➔ Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of ➔ Through toilet training, the child learns the basic rules of development, which occurs during the first three years of life. society. ➔ Autonomy means independence of thought and confidence PHALLIC STAGE to think and act for oneself. ➔ Ages three and six ➔ Children begin to assert their independence during this stage. ➔ Motivated by curiosity ➔ Erikson states that if parents allow their children to explore, they ➔ Pleasure from: will become more confident and secure in their own abilities. ➔ If Children are overly protected, they may become overly ◆ Examining dependent on their parents and feel a sense of shame or doubt ◆ Touching in their own abilities. ◆ Fondling ➔ Erikson believes that this stage has important implications in the ◆ Displaying genitals development of independence and identity during adolescence. ➔ Children must be educated properly on sexuality. INITIATIVE VS GUILT ➔ Sex curiosity will remain high during the elementary years, ➔ Initiative versus guilt is Erikson's third stage of development, and children will tend to ask questions regarding anatomical which occurs around ages 3 to 5. structures, sex, and how babies are made. ➔ During this period, developing a sense of responsibility among ➔ Fixations at this stage may lead to children leads to the development of an initiative. ◆ Abnormal sexual behaviors in later life. ➔ A child who is made to feel irresponsible might develop feelings LATENCY STAGE of guilt. ➔ The Fourth stage is the latency stage, which lasts from 7 to 12 INDUSTRY VS INFERIORITY years of age. ➔ Industry versus inferiority is the fourth stage of development, ➔ At this stage, sexual energy is repressed because children which occurs around elementary school years. become occupied with school. ➔ During this stage, children face the task of developing GENITAL STAGE knowledge and skills usually taught in schools. ➔ Adolescence to adulthood. ➔ When children are encouraged in their efforts, they will ➔ Pleasure is again derived from the genital area develop a sense of industry. ➔ Individuals seek to satisfy their sexual drive from sexual ➔ However, children who receive little or no encouragement relationships. from parents and teachers will doubt their own abilities and are ➔ Sexual problems may result as a consequence of inappropriate likely to develop inferiority. sexual behaviors. IDENTITY FORMATION VS IDENTITY CONFUSION THE ROLE OF ERIK ERIKSON’S THEORY IN ➔ The fifth psychosocial stage, identity formation versus UNDERSTANDING THE SELF identity confusion, takes place during adolescence. ➔ Involves views on the identity development of the self. ➔ At this stage, adolescents face the task of finding out who they ➔ In Erik Erikson's theory, adolescence is a period of identity are, what they are, and what they want in life. development. ➔ They are confronted with many roles and responsibilities. ➔ Identity formation is usually viewed as a process that ➔ If parents provide proper support, adolescents will develop a requires adolescents to distance themselves from the strong positive identity. expectations and definitions imposed by parents and other ➔ If they are not adequately supported, they will feel insecure family members. and identity confusion will likely develop. ➔ To achieve an individual identity, one must create a vision of the INTIMACY VS ISOLATION self that is authentic which is anchored on the meaning of his or ➔ Intimacy versus isolation occurs during early adulthood when her goals for the future sense of having a hold of one's destiny in people explore personal relationships. an effort to reach personally meaningful goals (Newman ➔ During this sixth stage of development, Erikson believes it is &Newman, 2008). vital that people develop intimate relationships with others. ➔ One way adolescents try to establish their identity is through ➔ Those who are successful in this stage will likely form status symbols, such as having "state-of-the- art" mobile relationships that are stable and successful. phones, designer bags and clothes, and other material ➔ Inability to develop intimate relationships during this stage will possessions. lead to mistrust and isolation. GENERATIVITY VS STAGNATION SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES ➔ Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh stage of LOOKING-GLASS SELF development, which occurs during middle adulthood. “If he or she thinks others judge him or her unfavorably, ➔ Generativity involves a person's desire to contribute to the he could develop a negative-self- image” world by teaching, leading, and guiding the next generation and doing activities that will benefit the community. ➔ Charles Horton Cooley in 1902 ➔ Developing a sense of generativity is important during this stage. ➔ The person whom a person interacts with becomes a mirror ➔ Those who fail to attain this generativity wil feel worthless. in which he or she views himself or herself. INTEGRITY VS DESPAIR ➔ Self-image is formed by conceiving an idea of: ➔ Integrity versus despair is the final psychosocial stage, which ◆ How a person presents himself or herself to others occurs during old age and is focused on self-reflection in ◆ How he or she analyzes how others perceive him or her one's life. ◆ How he or she creates an image of himself or herself ➔ At this stage, individuals reflect on the important events of ➔ Since these perceptions are subjective, a person might have their lives. wrong interpretations of how other people evaluate him or ➔ If they are satisfied and proud of their accomplishments, they her. will feel a sense of integrity. ➔ Those who are unsuccessful in this stage will feel that their life THEORY OF THE SOCIAL SELF has been wasted and will experience regrets and despair. “No matter how much the world shapes a person, he or she will always remain a creative being, and be able to react to the world around him or her.” ➔ George Herbert Mead ➔ Generalized others ◆ The attitudes, viewpoints, demands, and expectations of others and the society. ➔ The self has two divisions: ◆ I Is the subjective element Represents the spontaneous, & unique traits of the individual SUMMARY ◆ Me ➔ The I-Self refers to the self that knows who he or she is. The Me-Self refers to the person's personal experiences and is Is the Objective element further divided into subcategories: material self, social self, and Represents the internalized attitudes and demands of spiritual self. other people & the individual’s awareness of those ➔ According to Rogers, the real self consists of all the ideas, demands. including the awareness of what one is and what one can do. ➔ The self continues to change along with his or her social The Ideal self is the person's conception of what one should be experience. or what one aspires to be, which includes one's goals and ➔ The three Stage Process: ambitions in life. ◆ Preparatory Stage (0-3) ➔ The function of the false self is to hide and protect the true Imitate people around them self. Copy the behavior without understanding underlying ➔ People are viewed as proactive agents of experiences. Efficacy intentions beliefs are the foundation of human agency. No sense of self ➔ The self is the central archetype that unites all parts of the ◆ Play Stage (3-5) psyche. The ego is the individual's conscious perception of the Start to view themselves in relation to others self. Learn to communicate through language and symbols ➔ Freud makes a distinction among the three components of the Role Taking is Exhibited personality: id, ego, and superego. Do not perceive role taking as something expected ➔ In Erik Erikson's theory, to achieve an individual identity, one from them must create a vision of the self that is authentic. Self is developing ◆ Game Stage (8-9) UNDERSTANDING THE SELF: CHAPTER 3 & 4 Understand not only their own social position but also SOCIAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE those of others around them SOCIAL PERSPECTIVE Become concerned and take into account their “The people whom a person interacts become a mirror in behavior which he views himself” Sophisticated look of people and ability to respond to ➔ Based on the assumption that human behavior is influenced numerous members of the social environment by group life Self is now present ➔ Formed through interactions with other people groups or social institutions. THE SELF AS A PRODUCT OF MODERN AND POSTMODERN SOCIETIES ➔ Process wherein individuals base their sense of self on how they believe others view them MODERN ➔ Attainment and stability of self-identity is freely chosen ➔ Using social interaction as a type of mirror ➔ No longer restricted by customs & traditions ➔ People use the judgements they receive from others to measure their own worth, values, and behavior POSTMODERN ➔ Society and individuals are not separate, but rather two ➔ Welcomes all possibilities for self-improvement complementary aspects of the same phenomenon. ➔ Self-identity continuously change due to the demands of SOCIOCENTRIC multitude of social contexts, new information ➔ View as contingent on a situation or social setting technologies, & globalization ➔ View of self as context dependent CONSEQUENCES OF POSTMODERN IDENTITY TOOLBOX ➔ Exposed by Jean Baudrillard ➔ Refers to the features of a person’s identity that he or she ➔ The cultural practices of advertising and mass media chooses to emphasize in constructing a social self greatly influence individuals to consume goods not for their PERSONAL NAMING primary value, and utility but for the feeling of goodness ➔ Universal practice with numerous cross cultural variations and power compared to others. establishes a child’s birthright and social identity ➔ Alienation, dehumanization ➔ An important device to individualize a person and at the ◆ Hinders full development of human potential same time becomes a legitimate member of a group ➔ Consumption structure ➔ Intimate markers of the person, differentiating individuals ➔ The postmodern person has become an insatiable from others consumer. ➔ Symbolically represents his or her cultural self ➔ There may be a never-ending search for prestige in ➔ There’s no self if the individual is without a name, personal postmodern society. names represent the self. ANTHROPOLOGICAL VIEW THREE-PHASED RITE OF PASSAGE ANTHROPOLOGY ➔ Arnold Van Gennep ➔ The study of human races, origins, societies, and cultures ◆ Believes that changes in one’s status and identity are ➔ Holds a holistic view of human nature marked by a three-phased rite of passage. ➔ How cultural and biological processes interact to shape SEPARATION human experiences ➔ People detach from their former identity to another ➔ Culture and Self are complementary concepts that are to LIMINAL be understood in relation to one another ➔ One has left one identity but has not yet entered or joined ➔ Possesses a holistic and integrated approach to examine the next human nature ➔ It encroaches on the territory of the sciences as well as INCORPORATION humanities ➔ Changes are incorporated into a new identity by ➔ Academic field in understanding the interconnections and elaborated rituals and ceremonies (ignition rituals) makes a interdependence of biological and cultural aspects of the person to readily accept new ways of looking at himself and human experiences in all times and places. others. ➔ Both biological and cultural factors have significant THE SELF EMBEDDED IN CULTURE influence in the development of self-awareness CLIFFORD GEERTZ CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF SELF AND IDENTITY “Without men, no culture, certainly; but equally, and more CULTURE significant, without culture, no men” ➔ Culture is not behavior itself but the shared ➔ Offers a reformation of the concept of culture which favor understandings that guide behavior and are expressed in a symbolic interpretive model of culture behavior ➔ Two important ideas about concept of culture and men ➔ Has enormous implications for everyone’s conceptions of ◆ Culture should not be perceived only as complexes of self concrete behavior patterns but as a set of control EDWARD TAYLOR mechanism ➔ Complex whole which includes, knowledge, belief, art, ◆ Man is precisely the animal most desperately morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and dependent upon such extra genetic, outside the skin habits acquired by a man as a member of society control mechanism ➔ Human nature is interdependent with culture MARTIN SOKEFELD ➔ Concept of self is a necessary supplement to the concept of UNDERSTANDING THE SELF: CHAPTER 5 culture in Anthropology and should be regarded as a human THE WESTERN AND EASTERN CONCEPTS OF SELF universal. One of the most effective ways to learn about oneself is by taking ➔ Culture and self thus become complementary concepts seriously the cultures of others. It forces you to pay attention to those that gave to be understood in relation to one another details of life that differentiate them from you. CLIFFORD GEERTZ - Edward T. Hall ➔ A system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic ➔ This chapter outlines the Western and Eastern concepts of self forms by means of which men communicate, perpetuate and and how they differ and agree on certain perspectives. develop their knowledge about and attitude towards life ➔ The Western conceptualization of the self is divided into three periods of historical development HOW SELF IS VIEWED IN SOCIETIES ➔ Whereas the Eastern concepts of self are presented based on EGOCENTRIC the four great systems of Eastern thought: ➔ Viewed as autonomous & distinct individual ◆ Hinduism ➔ A view of the self that defines each person as a replica of ◆ Buddhism all humanity but capable of acting independently from ◆ Confucianism others ◆ Taoism.  WESTERN CONCEPTS OF SELF ➔ Experimental psychology came into prominence during the ➔ Geertz (van Meijl, 2008) defines the Western concept of self as mid-18th century and put forth the concept of self within the "a bounded, unique, more or less integrated motivational social-interactionist framework. and cognitive universe, adynamic center of awareness, ➔ The growth of sociology, anthropology, and psychology in the late 19th century saw the emergence of various concepts emotion, judgment, and action organized into a distinctive of self, among them the Western concept. whole and set contrastively both against other such wholes and against its social and natural background..." THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE WESTERN CONCEPT ➔ This construction of an autonomous, unitary, and stable self in OF SELF the West is grounded in a contrasting assumption that Stage Period Historical Development non-Western (such as Eastern) people do not possess an 1 Pre-Christian There were philosophical and times until theological attempts to characterize the individual self that is differentiated from the "other." 1850 self through the concepts of soul and ➔ For that reason, the delusion of the separate self is likely to be mind, with emphasis on the conscious stronger in individuals raised in individualistic Western experience of the individual, the societies. distinction between the physical and ➔ It is in this sense that the Western concept of self is holistically mental nature of man (mind-body defined by Frank Johnson (1985) in terms of the following dualism), and the causality of human behavior aspects: 2 1850-1940 The establishment of experimental 1. Western Self as Analytic psychology in mid-19" century led to a - The Western way of thinking is analytic-deductive, with change in emphasis, from abstract emphasis on causal links (part-to-whole relationships). concepts of soul and mind to The whole is understood when differentiated into parts. observable and measurable aspects of One must categorize and make distinctions to pursue human faculties. cause. The concept of self re-emerged within the social-interactionist framework in 2. Western Self as Monotheistic the early 1900s. - The belief in one Supreme Being coexisting with the 3 1940-present There is the multidirectional and universe condenses the supernatural and human continuous development of the concept capabilities into a bipolarity of both qualities of existence of self: (e.g., beautiful/ugly; kind/ cruel; sacred/ profane; and ➔ Sociological and psychological strong/weak) and categories of identity or experience theories of the self encompass all (e.g., God/Satan; body/soul; love/ lust; and sinner/saint). three levels of the self, namely, the 3. Western Self as Individualistic inner self, interpersonal self, and social self. - Western individualism exhibits the coexistence of ➔Existentialists and phenomenologists, favorable and unfavorable conditions inherent in personal both in philosophy and psychology, freedom. Although the right to individual freedom engaged in a holistic approach, provides opportunities for self-fulfillment, it also increases integrating the inner, interpersonal, the likelihood of experiencing alienation and frustration. and social aspects of the self. 4. Western Self as Materialistic and Rationalistic ➔At present, there is convergence in some conceptualizations of the self - The Western way of thinking is focused on material among psychologists, "things" and favors a rational-empirical approach over anthropologists, sociologists, magical and superstitious explanations of immaterial philosophers, and linguists, whose "things." studies focus on the actual, multivariate, and situational contexts ➔ David Ho (1995) describes the Western self as an of the self, employing new individualistic self that is deeply aware of itself, its frameworks and methodologies. uniqueness, sense of direction, purpose, and volition. EASTERN CONCEPTS OF SELF ➔ The self is located at the center within the individual, through ➔ In the East, philosophy and religion are twisted together. which the world is perceived. ➔ Thus, the major Eastern religions, such as Hinduism, ➔ The self is also seen as "an entity distinct from other selves Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, are also the common and all other entities." representatives of Eastern thought. ➔ This implies that the self belongs to the individual and no ➔ These Eastern intellectual traditions differ greatly in features other. and approach various issues about selfhood. ➔ As a consequence of this complete ownership of self, it ➔ For this reason, Eastern thought is described as pluralistic becomes a sovereign subject possessing a sense of personal (Garcia, 2013). control. ➔ Although these four systems of Eastern thought differ in their ➔ If all things are well, the self achieves coherence and stability approaches to the concept of self, they share the same goal—to over time teach how to become a perfect person (Villaba, 1995). ➔ In an individualist perspective, the Western self is the measure THE SELF IN FOUR GREAT SYSTEMS OF EASTERN THOUGHT of all things (Ho,1995; Garcia, 2013), that is, the source of all reflections. HINDUISM ➔ Frank Johnson (1985) traces the earliest historical roots of ➔ The Hindu concept of the self is expounded the Western concept of self to works on philosophy almost in Vedanta, a major school of Indian half a million years ago. thought based on Upanishads, the classical ➔ By the middle of the 19* century, psychology has provided Indian philosophical treatises. answers to philosophical questions about the concepts of soul ➔ It has been stated that Brahman is an and mind. absolute reality, and Atman (soul or spirit),  the true knowledge of self, is identical to Brahman. ➔ This state of transcendence can be achieved through ➔ Vedanta characterizes human suffering as the result of meditation (Ho, 1995). failure to realize the distinction between the true self CONFUCIANISM (permanent and unchanging) and the non-true self ➔ The Confucian doctrines are found in the Analects (impermanent and changes continually). (Conversations of Confucius). ➔ The goal of the person doesn't know the true reality— ➔ The core of Confucian thought is the Golden Rule or the Brahman. principle of reciprocity: ➔ Self-realization is being united or all-embracing Brahman. "Do not do to others what you would not want others to do ➔ However, the realization of true selfhood will result in a to you." complete dissolution of individual identity (Ho, 1995). ➔ Thus, the basic virtue or proper conduct is knowing how to ➔ The law of karma is the most important doctrine of act in relation to others. Hinduism. ➔ The most important of relationships are the Five Cardinal ➔ All actions are subject to karma. Relationships: ➔ Individual actions will lead to either good or bad outcomes in ◆ Between ruler and subject one's life. ◆ Between father and son ➔ People get exactly what they deserve. ◆ Between husband and wife ➔ If you do good things, you will be rewarded; if you do bad, you ◆ Between brothers will be punished. ◆ Between friends. ➔ Therefore, the individual is the only one responsible for the ➔ Hence, the self is known as a relational self. consequences of his or her actions (Garcia, 2008a) ➔ Another important feature in Confucian thought is the ➔ Hindus believe that Atman, being an immortal soul, individual's greatest mission of attaining self-realization continues to be reincarnated from lifetime to lifetime until it is wherein self-cultivation is instrumental. freed from the cycle of rebirth and reaches a state of nirvana or ➔ Self-cultivation can be accomplished by knowing one's role in non-birth (Garcia, 2008). society and acting accordingly. ➔ Karma does not end with a body's death, so its influence may ➔ Moral character is perfected by continuously taking every extend through the incarnation of the soul. opportunity to improve oneself in thought and action. ➔ Individuals cannot change the fact that they are exactly what ➔ There will be harmonious relationships when individuals follow they are supposed to be in life. the rules of proper social behavior. ➔ In their present lifetime, they can change what they will become ➔ The individual is set to respond to what is socially required, in their future lives. rather than to one's personal needs and goals. BUDDHISM ➔ Here, the self is a subdued self (Ho, 1995). ➔ Siddharta Gautama, known as the Buddha, is the founder of TAOISM Buddhism. ➔ Taoism is a Chinese counterculture. ➔ The root word of Buddhism is budh, meaning awake. ➔ Taoists reject the Confucian idea of a relational self. ➔ To be awake may imply that opening the eyes would lead to ➔ To them, the self is an extension of the cosmos, not of social understanding more about the self and the world. relationships. ➔ According to the teachings of Buddhism, every person has the ➔ The self is described as one of the limitless forms of the Tao seed of enlightenment, hence, the potential to be a Buddha. (Ho, 1995). ➔ However, the seed should be nurtured (Mansukhani, 2013). ➔ The Tao is commonly regarded as Nature that is the foundation ➔ The Four Noble Truths are the basic principles of Buddhism of all that exists (Garcia, 2013). ◆ Life is suffering; ➔ It is not bounded by time and space. ◆ Suffering is caused by attachment to desires; ➔ The ideal is to identify with the Tao. ◆ Suffering can be eliminated; and ➔ The perfect man has no self. ◆ Elimination of suffering is through the practice of the ➔ Selflessness is attained when the distinction between "I" and Eightfold Path (right view, right aspiration, right speech, right "other" dissolves. action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and ➔ Consequently, the individual may behave spontaneously, just right concentration). going with the flow of the Tao. ➔ Buddhist philosophy, man is just a title for the summation of ➔ The selfless person leads to a balanced life, in harmony with the five parts (matter, sensation, perception, mental constructs, both nature and society (Ho, 1995). and consciousness) that compose the individual; however, each ➔ Taoists believe that simplicity, spontaneity, and harmony with of the parts distinctly is not man (Villaba, 1995). Man has no self nature should govern one's life. (or no-soul). There is only nothing, and all else is an illusion. ➔ Individuals must seek to understand and act in accordance ➔ There is nothing permanent but change. with the natural order. ➔ The ignorance of the impermanence of everything may lead to ➔ There should be unity and harmony among opposing an illusion of selfhood. elements: the yin and yang (Abella, 2016). ➔ This primal ignorance is the cause of life's misery, births, and ➔ Hence, there is oneness of the Tao. rebirths. ➔ The perfect moral-intellectual knowledge becomes powerful DICHOTOMY OF WESTERN AND EASTERN CONCEPTIONS OF in the sense that it eliminates the cause of one's misery and THE SELF awakens one from the illusion of selfhood. ➔ An extensive literature on Eastern thoughts about the self ➔ The ideal is to experience nirvana (literal meaning: "blowing exists. out," like a lamp), a state of transcendence devoid of ➔ Many movements of Eastern thoughts raise questions about the self-reference. ultimate meaning of life and have developed theories of the self  insofar as they have investigated what it means to be a human ➔ It has been argued that the individual and nature are part of a being. single whole. ➔ In Eastern thought, the emphasis is relational rather than ➔ The matrix that follows categorizes the Western and Eastern individualistic. conceptualizations of the self, perspectives, and approaches. ➔ The self is considered not in isolation, but in relation to others, *COMPARATIVE MATRIX OF WESTERN AND EASTERN APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING THE SELF TABLE AFTER THIS PAGE* society, and the universe. ➔ The application of the different perspectives and approaches ➔ Eastern thoughts aim at transformations in consciousness, contributed to improvements in the conceptualization of the self. feelings, emotions, and one's relation to other people and the ➔ The Western and Eastern perspectives of the self grew from a world. combination of sociology, anthropology, psychology, ROBBINS, 2012 theology, and religion. ➔ The theories of Eastern philosophers demonstrate a sociocentric ➔ The Western and Eastern thoughts attempt to combine the good view, presupposing that the self exists as an entity within the elements of the different disciplines to totally understand the concrete situation or role occupied by the person (Robbins, 2012). self. VAN MEIJIL, 2008 SUMMARY ➔ Western thought favors a rational-empirical approach over a ➔ In contrast, Western thoughts tend to view the self as autonomous, unitary, and stable (van Meijl, 2008). magical and superstitious explanation of things, including the ➔ Nevertheless, Western thoughts about the self have been self. examined by renowned theorists such as Freud, Erikson, ➔ Ho characterizes the Western self as an individualistic self that Bandura, Rogers, Jung, James, Mead, Cooley, and others. is deeply conscious of itself, including its uniqueness, ➔ They have conducted scientific investigations in an effort to motivation, and free will. understand the self and have developed theories and concepts ➔ The law of karma is the most important doctrine of Hinduism, to account for the similarities and differences among them. which implies that individual actions will lead to either good or ➔ They emphasize the importance of scientific methods to bad outcomes in one's life. provide satisfactory answers to understanding the self. ➔ According to the teachings of Buddhism, every person has the ➔ Eastern theories offer a variety of techniques for cultivating a seed of enlightenment, hence, the potential to be a Buddha. deeper understanding of the self. ➔ In Confucian thought, moral character is perfected by ➔ However, they do not utilize the scientific techniques of continuously taking every opportunity to improve oneself in investigation. thought and action. ➔ To Taoists, the self is an extension of the cosmos, not of social ENGLER, 2012 relationships. The self is described as one of the limitless forms ➔ It is vitally important that both East and West appreciate each other's attempts to understand the self. of the Tao (nature). ➔ To do so can only enrich both (Engler, 2012). QUITO (GARCIA, 2008) ➔ Thus, Quito (Garcia, 2008) seeks to place Western and Eastern theories of the self into perspective by making some comparisons and contrast among them. ➔ For instance, Asian thought looks at life in the three-mode cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. ➔ Meanwhile, the Western concept of life is linear, as it is concerned with absolute beginnings or endings in time and space. ➔ Asian thought does not dichotomize between one's way of thinking and one's way of living. This implies that one's thought, action, and speech should be in harmony. ➔ Asian thought considers intuition as a valid means to gain wisdom; it does not rely mainly on reason and logic, which are the more popular sources of knowledge in the West. ➔ Another distinction between Eastern and Western thoughts is about nature and self. SARZA, 2013 ➔ According to Sarza (2013), one unique feature of Eastern philosophy is its great reverence for nature. ➔ It is believed that nature promotes introspection into one's inner life and that wisdom and enlightenment can be attained by observing nature. PEACOCK, 1986 ➔ Meanwhile, Peacock (1986) mentions that modern Western culture tends to set the individual against nature, that is, to struggle against nature, which is a dangerous enemy. ➔ This viewpoint can be traced to Christian theologies that consider nature as fallen and evil. ➔ However, recently there have been objections to this view of nature opposing the human being.