Phonology and Phonetics PDF

Phonology:- 1. **Phoneme**: Imagine a phoneme as a "sound hero." It’s like a special sound that helps us tell one word from another. For example, the sounds at the beginning of the words *time* and *dime* are different. The /t/ sound in *time* and the /d/ sound in *dime* are different phonemes beca...

Phonology:- 1. **Phoneme**: Imagine a phoneme as a "sound hero." It’s like a special sound that helps us tell one word from another. For example, the sounds at the beginning of the words *time* and *dime* are different. The /t/ sound in *time* and the /d/ sound in *dime* are different phonemes because they change the meaning of the word. 2. **Allophone**: An allophone is like a "sound friend" of a phoneme. It’s a variation of the phoneme, but it doesn’t change the word. For example, you might say the /p/ sound slightly differently in *pot* (with a puff of air) and in *spot* (without the puff), but it’s still the same phoneme /p/—just a different version or allophone. So, “phonemes are sounds that change the meaning of words, while allophones are different ways to say the same sound! “ ___________________ 1. **Phonology vs. Phonetics**: - Phonetics: Studies speech sounds (production, acoustics, and perception). - Phonology: Focuses on the organization and patterns of sounds in a language 2. **Phoneme**: - The smallest unit in a language that can change the meaning of a word. For example, /t/ in *time* vs. /d/ in *dime* 3. **Minimal Pair**: - Two words that differ by only one sound, showing that the sounds are different phonemes. Example: *time* [taɪm] vs. *dime* [daɪm] 4. **Allophone**: - Variations of a phoneme that do not change the meaning of a word. For example, [p] in *pot* (aspirated) and [p] in *spot* (unaspirated) are both allophones of the same phoneme 5. **Complementary Distribution**: - When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in complementary distribution. For example, [eɪ] and [eï] do not change meaning but occur in different contexts. 6. **Phonological Rules**: - Language-specific rules that dictate sound patterns, like shorter vowels before voiceless consonants. Consonants are speech sounds produced by obstructing airflow in various ways. In linguistics, consonants are classified based on several features: 1. **Place of Articulation**: Where the consonant sound is produced in the vocal tract. - Bilabial: both lips ([p], [b]) - Labiodental: lip and teeth ( [f], [v]) - Dental: tongue against the teeth ( [θ], [ð]) - Alveolar: tongue against the alveolar ridge ( [t], [d]) - Post-alveolar: just behind the alveolar ridge ([ʃ], [ʒ]) - Velar: back of the tongue against the soft palate ( [k], [g]) - Glottal: glottis ( [h]) 2. **Manner of Articulation**: How the airflow is constricted. - Plosive: complete obstruction ( [p], [t]) - Nasal: airflow through the nose ([m], [n]) - Fricative: close together but not completely obstructed ([f], [s]) - Affricate: begins as a plosive and releases as a fricative ([tʃ], [dʒ]) - Approximant: less obstruction than fricatives ([r], [l]) - Lateral: airflow around the sides of the tongue ([l]) 3. **Voicing**: Whether the vocal cords vibrate during articulation. - Voiced: vocal cords vibrate ([b], [d]) - Voiceless: vocal cords do not vibrate ([p], [t]) “Different languages may have different sets of consonants, leading to variations in pronunciation and speech patterns” -Diphthongs// are a sequence of two vowels that functions as a single sound and always form one syllable. -Syllabic consonants// are possible for sounds that are normally consonants to be prolonged slightly and serve as the nucleus of a syllable. -Intonation// is use of the voice for linguistic purposes other than distinguishing words; for instance, for distinguish questions from statements. -Diacritics// The IPA provides a number of diacritics that may be attached to symbols to modify their meaning e.g to indicate aspiration, voicelessness, etc. The Vocal Tract: 1. The lungs and lower respiratory passages. 2. The larynx is the primary (but not the only) source of sound in speech production 3. The pharynx  (passages above the larynx), oral cavity (mouth), and nasal cavity. Describing Speech Sounds: The human vocal tract can produce thousands of distinct sounds. sounds are much more common than others