Nature and Scope of Sociology and Anthropology PDF

Nature and Scope of Sociology and Chapter 1 Anthropology Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to: 1. Identify the importance between Anthropology and Sociology. 2. Enumerate the pioneers...

Nature and Scope of Sociology and Chapter 1 Anthropology Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to: 1. Identify the importance between Anthropology and Sociology. 2. Enumerate the pioneers of Sociology and their basic principles towards the study of this young science. 3. Compare Sociology with other sciences: natural science with social science. A. SOCIOLOGY DEFINED The word sociology came from two permanent language of early advanced civilization. “Socious, a Latin word meaning companion, or society, and from the Greek word “logus”, meaning to study. From these coined words, it could be further deduced that sociology is the study of society. For the purpose of extensive discussion, sociology is defined as the scientific study of human relationships and significant social phenomena arising from continuous interaction of men in a particular setting or locale. In other words, it studies the groups and group interactions, societies and social interactions, from small and personal groups to very large groups. B. WHY STUDY SOCIOLOGY? The dynamism and complexities of life confronted man to analyze social phenomena that can’t be explained by common sense alone but of scientific investigation. There are two assumptions that lead to the foundation of sociology. The first assumption is that human behavior follows a pattern or order similar to the patterning of natural phenomena. This assumption claimed that one has to observe the everyday activities of his fellows to determine that certain acts are performed in a more or less standardized way. The second factual basis of sociology is that man is a “social creature”, with this context, man has a natural tendency to associate themselves in groups and because of associations, social phenomena occur as a product of cause and effects thesis. It is in these assumptions that sociology was conceived as a discipline among scholars in the early times and among students and members of the academe and interested individuals in more contemporary settings. C. ANTHROPOLOGY DEFINED Anthropology is a science of humanity and its society. It is a scientific study of humanity, the similarities and diversity of cultures, and it attempts to present an integrated picture of humankind. Anthropology studies the biological, social, and cultural development of humankind and seeks answers to why people are different and how they are similar. It has subdivisions linked by unifying themes. One can glean the vastness of the subject matter of anthropology by looking into its serious fields (Ember and Ember, Whitten, such as the following: D. THE BEGINNINGS OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY The beginnings of anthropology go back to the period of discoveries and explorations, from the fifteenth to the eighteenth centuries. Sources of facts are the accounts of early Western explorers, missionaries, soldiers, and colonial officials regarding the strange behavior and beliefs as well as exotic appearance of people they had come in contact with. Discoveries of flint tools and other artifacts in Europe in the early nineteenth century gave evidence of the existence of human beings a million years ago. These discoveries happened at a time when advances in physics and chemistry were made, arousing an interest in scientific inquiry. In the nineteenth century anthropology began to take shape as a separate field of study that had its roots in the natural sciences, social sciences, and the humanities (Whiteford and Friedl, 1992:2). Edward Tylor was the first professor of anthropology in Oxford, England. In the United States, it was Franz Boas of Clark University, Massachusetts. After World War II, there were changes in the balance of political power. This led to comparative and international themes. Sociology had to adapt to these changes and to those of the globalizing world. The American sociologists working in Europe and North America were excited about the fresh possibilities of societies other than their own getting interested in sociology. Among them were Barrington Moore, Clark Ken Talcon Parsons, Andre Gunder Frank, a German scholar, and Peter Worsley, an English sociologist (Coben, 2000:8-9), Rarely had there been sociologists who were both grand theorists and empiricists at the same time, a trend that is gaining popularity today. E. THE DEVELOPMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES The ideas of sociology and anthropology were diffused in Europe. in the Americas, and in Asia, and one of the receiving countries is the Philippines. In the Philippines there is a tradition of close cooperation between sociology and social anthropology Anthropology began as a practical activity of colonizers in the service of religion and government. Ethnographic accounts provided by Spanish chroniclers like Antonio Pigafetta, Loarca, Plasencia, and Fr. Pedro Chirino are now being used for historical and cooperative studies on Philippine society and culture In the nineteenth century archeological explorations were made by a Frenchman, Alfred Marche, who did some diggings in Marinduque. Jose Rizal and Trinidad Pardo de Tavera later contributed to ethnoliguistics and the study of folklore (Panopio and Bennagen, 1985:219) During the American period, the American government got interested in the various ethnic groups of the country out of curiosity and religious, humanistic and political reasons. The Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes was established, it was later replaced by the Ethnological Survey of the Philippines Office. Field studies were made on a number of hill peoples by such American anthropologists as H. Otley Beyer, Albert Jenks and Roy Franklin Barton. In 1920 Serafin Macaraig, the first Filipino to obtain a Ph.D. in sociology from the University of Wisconsin, introduced the social problem orientation. Not until the 1950s did the scientific perspective seep into sociology with the establishment of educational exchange programs and local scholarships and the holding of seminars and conferences SOC SCI 1: Society and Culture Page 2 of 7 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050 on social science. A number of Filipinos studied in the United States and England and imbibed the theoretical and research orientations of the West, such as structural functionalism and symbolic interactionism. Like anthropology, modern sociology in the Philippines started only after World War II. The number of Filipinos enjoying foreign scholarships or studying in the U.S. continued to increase in the 1950s. Training abroad was mostly in the University of Chicago and Cornell University. The returning scholars in both sociology and anthropology ushered into the Philippines the climate of research in the social sciences. With the arrival of several Fulbright professors, further interest in social research was started. In 1952 the Philippine Sociological Society was organized, which marked an milestone in the development of Philippine sociology. It published a journal, the Philippine Sociological Review, which had sociologists and anthropologist as contributors. The 1960s and 1970s saw the emergence of empirical researches undertaken in the University of the Philippines, Ateneo de Manila University, De La Salle University, Xavier University, and the University of San Carlos. The Institute of Philippine Culture at the Ateneo, headed by Frank Lynch SJ., a social anthropologist, came out with a number of publications on Philippine society and culture. The Community Development Center created in 1957 gave support to various social science researches, both pure and applied. At this time there was also an advocacy for the indigenization of concepts and tools suited to local conditions in order to wean social science research from its Western pattern and methodology Gelia Castillo, a Filipino sociologist, advocated the integration of the scattered empirical studies into the development problem areas on which policy-makers, researchers, teachers, and students can focus attention. The 1970s brought in ideas of phenomenological sociology and Marxism from Europe. The Anthropological Association of the Philippines (UGAT Ugnayan pang Agham Tao) was established in 1978. The organization publishes its own journal Agham Tao. Despite this breakaway from the Philippine Sociological Society, the individual and interorganizational cooperation between sociology and anthropology is still maintained. A major event for the social science community in the 1980s was the holding of the First Social Science Congress on November 17-19. 1983. The theme of the conference was “Towards Excellence in the Social Science in the Philippines." On May 22-23, 1998, the Philippine Social Science Council, in cooperation with the National Academy of Science and Technology, held the Fourth National Congress on assessing the role of the social sciences in the life of a nation celebrating the centennial anniversary of independence. In the 1990s the Philippine Sociological Society and the Ugnayan pang Agham Tao continued to address the current social issues facing the country through the holding of conventions and seminars and conducting empirical research on issues like the family and related problems, transnational migration, social deviance and NGOs. To increase the competence of the teachers of sociology and anthropology, seminars on teaching were also held. Trickles of students still go abroad- to the United States, England, France, and Russia - for doctoral studies. Likewise, sociologists and anthropologists are working toward the further indigenization of their concepts, tools, theories, and methodology. As SOC SCI 1: Society and Culture Page 3 of 7 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050 the disciplines of sociology and anthropology start the third millennium, they continue to wrestle with the social, cultural, political, and ecological problems of the country by providing insights and perspectives which may be useful for policy makers, program managers, and the people concerned themselves. F. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY The disciplines of sociology and anthropology have close affinities and many sociologists and anthropologists recognize that the disciplines have much in common, Socio-cultural anthropology is closely related to sociology, Both are recent arrivals in the academic scene, compared to the other social sciences, and both are associated with the process of colonization. In subject matter there is no precise boundary between the two. Both study everyday occurrences and share an interest in the recurrent and general uniformities in social behavior and social relationships. Both attempted to understand the way of life of various cultural groups. The two disciplines borrow heavily from each other. Culture as a concept was first enunciated by an English anthropologist, Edward Tylor. It is now widely used by sociologists in analyzing society In themes, both sociologists and anthropologists have increasingly attempted to include each other's data (Beals and Hoijer, 1971:18). This is especially true in the structural-functional approach held by both disciplines which goes back to the theories of such anthropologists as Bronislaw Malinowski, Ralph Linton, and A. R. Radcliffe Brown. Talcott Parsons, Robert Merton, and other sociologists likewise maintain the structural- functional approach with minor differences with the study of primitive or non-literate groups considered exotic and queer by Westerners. Sociology started as the study of the problems besetting Western societies after the Industrial and French Revolutions and later of advance and contemporary societies. Anthropology looks at the whole of humanity and studies various societies in different historical and geographical settings (Haviland, 1978:9), Lately, anthropologists have turned their attention to peasants who are fully integrated into the urban societies. They are investigating subgroups in urban areas like slums and squatter colonies or street corner societies. Horace Miner, an anthropologist, studied a city in the 1920s to test Robert Redfield's rural-urban continuum. Irwin Press and M. Estelle Smith (1980) have put together researches and essays written by anthropologists on urbanization in their book, Urban Places and Process. In the Philippines, F. Landa Jocano, an anthropologist, has led the way in undertaking research on slum dwellers in Manila. Both disciplines are also interested in the study of social issues, particularly rapid population growth, environmental degradation, urban poverty, and pollution. Sociology studies parts of societies, such as social groups, social institutions, social organization, and collective behavior although at times it studies the whole of society. As Inkeles (1964:54) pointed out, sociology may take society as a unit of analysis and discover how the institutions that compose it are related to one another. With the analysis of society as a unit, there is a meeting ground for sociology and anthropology. G. PIONEERS IN THE STUDY OF SOCIOLOGY In man’s pursuit to satisfy himself to the many “whys” of life fronted him to study the phenomena brought about by social change, under the discipline called sociology. The SOC SCI 1: Society and Culture Page 4 of 7 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050 early scholars who contributed significantly for the development of this young science are as follows: 1. AUGUSTE COMTE (1798 – 1857) Born after the French revolution of 1789, the overthrown of the French aristocracy, resulted to the upset of the social order of the French society. Comte proposed the philosophical position of positivism, which states that knowledge can be derived only from sensory experience, meta-physical speculations and intuitive insights. Further, under positivism, Comte theorized that the methods and techniques of natural and physical sciences are regarded as the accurate means of obtaining knowledge and Source: Britannica therefore social science should adhere to the same. Though ironic yet factual, Comte did not conduct further investigation in his study, but since he developed the idea and coined the term “sociology”, many books credited him as “Founder of Sociology”. 2. HARRIET MARTINEAU (1802 – 1876) Scholars were able to learn of Comte’s works largely through translations by the English sociologist Harriet Martineau. Here book “Society in America” examines religion, politics, child rearing, and immigration in the young nation. She gives special attention to status distinctions and to such factors as gender and race. Martineau’s writings emphasized the impact that the economy, law, trade, and population could have on the social problems of contemporary society. 3. KARL MARX (1818 – 1883) Considered as one of the greatest thinkers of the modern times (The Wall Street Journal) contributed a lot in the study of sociology. His book, Communist Manifesto, represents Marx’s theory of society. Marx believes that societies grew and changed as a result of the struggles of social classes. He proposed the Theory of Evolution or “class conflict theory” in which the bourgeoisie (capitalists) are locked in the inevitable conflict with the masses (working class) over limited resources. During the time he developed his theories, the Industrial Revolution and rise of Source: Britannica capitalism led to great gaps in wealth between the owners of factories and workers. Furthermore, he predicted that inequalities of capitalism would be so extreme that workers will revolt consequently capitalism collapses and would be replaced by communism. 4. HERBERT SPENCER (1820 – 1903) Spencer who grew up in England believes that society operates according to fixed laws. He proposed that there is parallelism between how society evolves in the same manner as animal species do. This principle is attributed to Darwin’s Theory of “Evolution of Species”. He believes that the principles of evolution that Darwin proposed is applicable to studying society. This is known as social Darwinism doctrine. Human societies, social SOC SCI 1: Society and Culture Page 5 of 7 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  classes, and individuals evolve over time the same way that living organisms do in order to survive. He coined the phrase “survival of the fittest”. 5. EMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1903) One of the pioneers of modern sociology, Durkheim helped established sociology as a formal academic discipline by establishing the first European department of sociology at University of Bordeaux in 1895. He was the one who studied thoroughly this discipline in the school of higher learning. He laid the foundation for modern sociology through his development of vigorous methodology combining empirical research with sociological theory. In 1897, Durkheim demonstrated his methodology of using Source: Britannica empirical observation to study suicide. In his work titled Le Suicide, he examined suicide statistics to research the differences between Catholic and Protestant communities. He found out that suicide appeared to be less frequent where the person was closely integrated into a society. His other contributions in the field include studies regarding religion, division of labor in society and industrialization. He is acclaimed as the father of modern sociology and the first professional academic sociologist from France. 6. MAX WEBER (1864-1920) A German sociologist, a contemporary of Durkheim, who like him held a professorship in sociology. If Marx proposed a central force or conflict in social change, Weber disagreed. He rather holds that it was religion (Catholicism vs. Protestantism) that encourage social change. His thesis of “Protestant ethic” relates Protestantism to capitalism. To prove his theory, he made a study on various countries that practices Catholicism and Protestantism. His conclusion that Protestantism is more likely to embrace, open to change and encourages greater economic development was in fact the core of capitalism. His controversial finding is a subject of debate among sociologists until today. H. OTHER SOCIOLOGISTS a. Albion Small, founder of the department of sociology at the University of Chicago and established the American Journal of Sociology to encourage research in the field of sociology. b. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois, also known as W.E.B. Du Bois, is an African- American sociologist who conducted research on race relations in the U.S. c. Talcott Parsons demonstrated with models how the parts of society harmoniously work together. d. Robert K. Merton stressed that sociologists need to develop middle-range theories as explanations of human behavior that go beyond the particular observation or research but avoid sweeping generalizations that attempt to account for everything. SOC SCI 1: Society and Culture Page 6 of 7 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050  e. Charles Wrights Mills, an American sociologist, urged sociologists to get back to social reform. He promoted the idea that social scientists should not merely be observes engaged in research and theory but assert their social responsibility and suggest the means in improving the society. I. FILIPINO SOCIOLOGISTS a. Fr. Valentin Marin – in 1896, he introduced sociology to the Philippines when he initiated a course on criminology at University of Santo Tomas. b. Fr. Frank Lynch is a US-born scholar who had the greatest impact on post-war Philippine social science. He is also a Jesuit professor of anthropology and sociology at Ateneo de Manila University. c. Serafin Macaraig – the first Filipino to receive a doctorate degree in sociology. He published a book entitled Introduction to Sociology. J. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN SOCIOLOGY Theory is defined as a general statement about how some parts of the world fit together and how they work; it is an explanation of how two or more facts are related to one another. The three major theoretical perspectives in sociology are: a. Symbolic Interactionism i. Society is viewed as composed of symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop their views of the world and communicate with one another. ii. Examples: use of universal signs like scuba diving hand signs, sign language, traffic signs, etc. b. Structural Functionalism i. Also known as functionalism. ii. Society is viewed as composed of various parts, each with a function which contributes to society’s equilibrium. It sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of the individuals in that society. iii. Example: laws’ functions are to protect society from violence and to punish criminal behavior; college education’s functions are for gaining knowledge, preparing for a career, joining organizations, etc. c. Conflict Theory i. Society is viewed as composed of groups competing for scarce resources – social, material, and political resources such as food and housing, employment, education, and leisure time. ii. Social institutions like government, education, and religion reflect this competition in their inherent inequalities and help maintain the unequal social structure. iii. Some individuals and organizations are able to obtain and keep more resources than others, and these “winners” use their power and influence to maintain social institutions. SOC SCI 1: Society and Culture Page 7 of 7 Module USMKCC-COL-F-050