Sociology of Education Textbook PDF

SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION CUSTOM PUBLICATION Thokozani Mathebula Peggy Siyakwazi Sipho Vilakazi OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS SOUTH AFRICA Contents Contributors...

SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION CUSTOM PUBLICATION Thokozani Mathebula Peggy Siyakwazi Sipho Vilakazi OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS SOUTH AFRICA Contents Contributors iv Chapter 1 Theories in sociologyof education vi 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Key concepts 2 1.3 Functionalism 6 1.4 Conflicttheory 12 1.5 Symbolic interactionism 19 Summary 23 References 24 Chapter 2 Practices in sociology of education: Social institutions, ecology and the role of the school in society 27 2.1 Introduction 28 2.2 Social institutions 29 2.3 Ecology of the school 34 2.4 Role of the school in society 38 Summary 48 References 49 Chapter 3 Citizenshipeducation 51 3.1 Introduction 52 3.2 Ancient and modern concepts of citizenship 53 3.4 Citizenshipeducation in the United Kingdom, the United States of America and South Africa 61 3.5 The future of citizenship education in South African schools: From competitive elitism and 'new patriotism' to cosmopolitanism 68 Summary 73 References 73 Chapter 4 Diversityand culture in education 75 4.1 Introduction 76 4.2 What is diversity? 77 4.3 Who am I? · 79 4.4 What is culture? 82 4.5 Social stratification 84 4.6 Theoretical perspectivesin sociologyof education 85 4.7 4.8 Race 88 4.9 Class 90 4.10 Access to education 92 Summary 92 References 93 Glossary 95 Index 103 Chapter 1 Theories in sociology of education Velisiwe Gasa and Sue du Plessis STRUCTURE OF CHAPTER - Introduction l l Symbolic interactionism Principles of the theory of symbolic Key concepts interaction ism Sociology Assumptions about the theory of Education symbolic interactionism Sociology of education The theory of symbolic interactionism Functions of sociology of education and families " - The theory of symbolic interaction ism 1 applied to society Divisions within the theory of symbolic Functionalism interaction ism Durkheim, Parsons and functionalism Assumptions about the theory of - f! functionalism 1: Critique of functionalism J Conflict theory Marx, Weber, Mills and conflict theory Conflict theory and families Conflict theory applied to society Assumptions about conflict theory Propositions of the proponents of conflict theory Critique of conflict theory l LEARNING OBJECTIVES After you have worked through this chapter, you should be able to: discuss the nature and extent of the sociology of education paradigm and how ideolo- gies are shaping global society analyse function?lism, conflict theory (Marxism) and symbolic interactionism criti- cally as theoretical frameworks in the context of sociology of education consider how these three theoretical frameworks provide differentiated interpreta- tions and are applied in the context of the family, school and society. GLOSSARY assimilation assumption bourgeoisie class conflict deviance functionalism ideology Marxism (conflict theory) meritocracy patriarchy pragmatism proletariat school of thought social capital social class social conflict social consensus social control social order social patterns social structure solidarity symbolic interactionism 1. 1 INTRODUCTION All educational processes and the social development of all individuals are affected by social institutions and the experiences of individuals within these institutions. This describes the field of study of sociology of education. This field of specialisation can be classified as a philosophical as well as a sociological concept, denoting ideologies, curricula and pedagogical techniques of the inculcation and management of knowledge as well as the social reproduction of personalities and cultures. It is concerned with the relationships, activities and reactions of teachers and learners in the classroom. It emphasises sociological problems in the realm of education (Hallinan, 2000: 65-84). 2 In addition, various researchers in the field have developed sepa rate focu s points z on different aspects of the functioning of education in the societal context, including 0 economic aspects of education (for example, how economic forces shape school 0 :J practice s, and how school s determine individual productivity and earnings) as well as 0 w related issues of socialisation, allocation and legitimisation. u. 0 The purpose of this chapter is to review three of the main theorie s embedded in >- (!) 0 sociology of education : functionali sm, conflict theory (Marxism) and the theory of...J 0 symbolic interactionism. These theories, perspectives or schools of thought offer soci- u ologists theoretical paradigms to use in explaining how society influences people and 0 en vice versa. Each per spec tive or school of thought uniquely conceptualises society, social forces, social patterns , socia l control and human behaviour. We begin by discu ssing and defining three key concepts in the field. In addition, we examine the function s of socio logy of education in order to endure the reader 's under sta nding of the se basic concepts before we proceed. 1.2 KEY CONCEPTS Sociology of education makes use of scientific theory and research to provide impor- tant insights into the ways in which schools affect individual s and groups. We begin by clarifying three basic concepts : sociology, educat.ion and sociology of education. 1.2.1 Sociology The term 'sociology ' was first used by French philo sop her Auguste Comte (1798-1857) in 1843. During a systematic restructuring of the methods and parameters of his subject, it became obvious to him that the name 'sociology' was more appropriate than 'socia l phy sics', which was the term used previously. Comte was the first person to recognise the need for a distinct science of human society. He contributed significantly to social reform by studying the social laws and dynamics that regulate and control relations and ac tions between people and social institutions, such as the family, the school , and economic and political systems in socie ty. Comte is thus regarded as the father of sociology (Mondal, 2015; Robinson, 1987 : 7). The field was further developed and establi shed by Western intellectu als such as Karl.Marx (1818-1884) , Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), George Herbert Mead (1863-1931), Max Weber (1864-1920), Talcott Parson s (1902-1970) and Alfred Schutz (1889-1973). The word 'sociology ' is a combination of the Latin word socius, meaning 'com panion ', and the Greek word logos, meaning 'the study of'. Thus, sociology is the study of companionship or socia l relations. In other words, it is the study of the origin , devel- opment, organisation and functioning of human social behaviours that are affected by social interaction s (Wailer, 2015 ; Gosling & Taylor, 2011 : 16-17 ). The concept of sociology can be defined as the study of human behaviours as they are affected by social interactions amongst groups, organisations, soc ieties and the world. These socia l interactions may involve two people or thousands , suggesting that people, communities, society and the world interact for the benefit of all. In interactions, the parties involved form syste ms for social interactions. Researchers in the field have formulated specific guidelines to predict interactive behavioural patterns of people tow ards each other (Gosling & Taylor, 2011: 16-18).  3 Sociology also involves the study of social factors , which are said to be 'ideas , feel- ings and ways of behaving' (Durkheim, 1982: 51). These social factors, which persist z 0 over time, are imposed upon all people who are born into a society. Durkheim empha- 0 sises that sociology is a study of systems that should investigated as a wbok and :J 0 cannot be comprehended by examining the individual parts in isolation. According to w u. him, 'ideas , values and beliefs can be found throughout a society and often persist for 0 >- long periods of time ' (Durkheim, 1982: 51). This suggests that an individual born into 0 _J a society can die, but the system will continue operating. 0 0 0 If) z 1.2.2 Education If) '!! (l: The word 'education' has its origins in the Latin word educere, which means 'to bring_ 0 w out that_which is within'. It is particularly concerned with eliciting the human values I I- that are latent in every human being and must be drawn Education can be seen as 0: the act or process of imparting or ac;quiring general knowledge, developing the powers liJ I- of reasoning and judgment, and preparing individuals intellectually for mature life Q_ - (!) 0 understanding of the relationship between educational institutions and society, both at...J 0 the micro and the macro levels (Saha, 2008: 300): u 0 (/) At a micro level, researchers seek to identify how variation in school practices , for example, different teaching methods, leads to differences in student performance. At a macro level, sociologists work to identify how various social forces, such as politics, economics and culture, create variation in schools as organisations. The formal study of sociology of education as a field began with the work of Emile Durkheim and Max Weber. Along with other sociologists such as Talcott Parsons , Pierre Bourdieu, James Coleman and John Meyer, Durkheim and Weber developed the theo- retical framework for the discipline as a whole, and also focused directly on and wrote about the role of education in society. Durkheim considered education to be essentially social in character and in its functions. He believed that the theory of education relates more clearly to sociology than to any other science (cf Section 1.3.1 for more detail on Durkheim and Parsons).. What is peculiar about sociology of education is that ultimately it approaches education at a 'level of abstraction that is essentially concerned with the social institu- tions of education from peer groups to classes and schools, to the system of education addressing institutional compositions, structures, procedures, ideologies and functions, not negating the interrelationships amongst education and other societal institutions, such as economic, political and governmental bodies' (Reid, 1986 : 22-23). Despite criticism that sociology of education affects the autonomy of the of education by labelling education as nothing more than an extension of sociology and aspires to prescribe to educators on the content that is taught as well as educative prac- tices, Reid (1986: 24-25) views the subject matter of sociology of education as providing both a unique picture and a questioning analysis of education. Its prirrie contribution is its singular insistence on viewing schools and education as pre-eminently social. 1.2.4 Functions of sociology of education From a general point of view , the acquisition of knowledge and the development of the personality of an individual are presumed to be the main function of education. It is assumed that these functions occur without effort. However, from a sociological point of departure, education also has the following functions (Wailer, 2015:1-9; Barkan, 2002:1-3): the assimilation and the transmission of culture and traditions the development of new social patterns the activation of constructive and creative forces. These functions are discussed in more detail below.  5 1.2.4.1 Assimilationand the transmissionof culture and traditions The assimilation and the transmission of culture and traditions must be done consciously z 0 and selectively. The inclusion of specific aspects of culture and tradition in the body 0 of knowledge that is to be taught should depend on their value and acceptability in ::J 0 UJ today's democratic social set-up. For example, if it is assumed that all religions are the lL same, meaning that all religions are simply paths to God, the moral responsibility of 0 )- members of society is emphasised (Prathapan , 2014). 0 0...J At the same time, according to Ballantine and Hammack (2012) , education should Q 0 assist with the acquisition of the following: 0 ffl clear moral principles and values ?; ffl the ability to examine one 's own thoughts and feelings UJ 0:: an awareness of one 's proficiencies and goals 0 UJ self-esteem and a strong belief in one's ability to achieve goals I f- the ability to think creatively 0:: an appreciation of culture , including art , music and the humanities UJ I- the development of a sense of well-being (in other words, mental and physical health) Q...: I respect for others 0 respect for the physical environment the capacity to live a fulfilling life. 1.2.4.2 Developmentof new social patterns In today 's rapidly changing world , the development of technology and mass media has resulted in the formation of new social patterns. Consequently, according to Znaniecki (1951: 69-86), whilst traditional values must be preserved, new values and social patterns should be developed in order to achieve the following aims : citizens who are grounded in their own cultures, but remain open to other cultures the cultivation of a global mind-set knowledge that is sufficiently advanced to allow economic development that manages both the physical and the human environment responsibly to take place the formation of citizens who are aware of their social responsibility the development of citizens who can assess the information that is available to them and use it to make predictions for the future the provision of training in problem-solving to people who are able to look for and evaluate alternative solutions. 1.2.4.3 Activation of constructiveand creative forces An important function of education is to provide a qualified and creative workforce made up of people who are able to adapt to new technologies and participate in the 'intelligence revolution ' that is the driving force behind most of the world 's econo- mies. According to Ballantine and Hammack (2012), education should achieve the following: ensure that learners are able to make a living by giving them adequate vocational education develop the mental and physical skills of learners (including motor, thinking , communication and social skills) produce adaptable people who can cope with changes in their social environment 6 create individuals who are able to make a contribution to the development of their z society 0 produce citizens who understand and appreciate democracy, and live according to 0 :J 0 its principles w u. create people who make good use of leisure time 0 teach students to adapt to change, prepare for change or initiate change in society >- 0 develop individuals who are open to others by teaching them mutual understanding 0...J Q and the value of peace 0 0 ({) promote knowledge of socially acceptable moral practices and ethical standards develop people who have an understanding of human relations and motivations. As stated earlier, some sociologists approach their research at a micro level (that is, they aim to identify how variations in school practices affect student performances), while others adopt a macro approach (in other words, they seek to understand the effect of social forces on education). This means that they look at the same phenomena in different ways. The micro approach is dominated by the theory of symbolic interac- tionism, whereas the macro approach is dominated by functionalism and conflict theory. These three perspectives (functionalism, conflict theory and symbolic interactionism) are discussed below. 1.3 FUNCTIONALISM '· One of the major theoretical approaches in sociology of education is the function- alist perspective, also called structural functionalism. Arguably, the most important approaches within sociology of education are those derived from the writings of two eminent theorists, Durkheim and Parsons. Structural functionalism (or functionalism) dominated sociological thinking about education until the late 1960s or early 1970s. Apart from a description of functionalism in general, the most salient contributions made by the aforementioned functionalists of sociology of education as well as some points of criticism of this approach will be dealt with in this section. The theory of functionalism is grounded in the natural and physical sciences, specifi- cally the theory of homeostasis, which is found in the living systems theory. This theory_ focuses on the functional contribution that society 's parts or sub-systems (for example , institutions) make to each other and to the maintenance of these parts for the sake of the stability and equilibrium of the society as a whole. However, society is more than the sum of its parts and the parts are interdependent on each other. These parts, which primarily represent the institutions of society, are structured to fulfil different needs, each of which has particular consequences for the form and shape of society (Crossman, 2012; Ballantine , 2001: 2-19). The functionalist approach or perspective achieved its greatest popularity among American sociologists during the 1940s and 1950s. They focused on discovering the functions of human behaviour, while European functionalists originally focused on explaining the inner workings of social order. American functionalist sociologist Robert Merton classified human functions into two types: manifest functions and latent func- tions. These functions, which are essentially relative and not absolute, consist of the following (Haralambos et al, 2004: 843):  7 Manifest functions are intentional and obvious. For example, the manifest function of attending a church, mosque, temple or synagogue ·is to worship as part of a reli- z 0 gious community, thus conveying basic knowledge and skills to the next generation. u Latent functions are unintentional and not obvious. For example, schools not only :::J 0 L1J educate young peqple , but they also provide mass entertainment. Latent functions u. may help members learn to distinguish personal values from institutional values. 0 >- (.') 0...J According to Durkheim, the latent role of education constitutes the socialisation of 0 people into society 's mainstream. Through this 'moral education ', as he called it, people u 0 C/) from diverse backgrounds are brought together into a more cohesive social structure. z Functionalists also point to other latent roles of education, such as the transmission C/) L1J lr of core values and social control. For example, in the American education system , the 0 L1J core values that are taught support the political and economic systems that originally I.... fuelled education. Thus , American children are rewarded for adhering to schedules , lr following directions , meeting deadlines and obeying authority (cf Chapter 2). UJ.... Functionalism has two levels of focus. At the micro-level focus of functionalism , a. - (!) 0 These works focus on how social order is possible and how society can remain stable...J 0 in spite of the many influences that could potentially destabilise social order. u 0 Ul The question that occupied Durkheim throughout his career concerned how we can ensure the kind of moral regulation and social integration that is appropriate for a modern society. It is necessary to know more about Durkheim 's life and the world in which he lived to understand why this issue troubled him so greatly. He was born in 1858, almost seventy years after the French Revolution. The guiding theme of the French Revolution was individual freedom, in contrast with the rapidly growing nation- alism and extreme conservatism that began developing prior to the First World War, which ended in 1918. The war raised nationalist feelings to a fever pitch. In a climate of virulent nationalism , there was no space for individualism to question the wisdom of government policies (Gelderblom et al., 2012: 64-65). It is helpful to view Durkheim 's theory against the backdrop of the capitalist indus- trialisation experienced by France at that time. His theory was an attempt to defend the rights of the individual as expressed in the ideals that underpinned the French Revolution. However, Durkheim 's theory also warned against the dangers of unchecked individualism, where the rights of the individual might outweigh the collective interests of society (Blackledge & Hunt, 1985:10-12). Educational institutions and sub-systems have an important responsibility to help achieve the desired equilibrium between the rights of the individual and the interests of society. Education can be defined as the influence exercised by the adult generation on those who are not yet ready for social life. For the child to live up to the demands of both the political society and the special space that he or she is destined to occupy in society, the child needs development in the physical, intellectual and moral states of his being (Ballantine, 1983: 8-9). Haralambos and Holborn expand on what Durkheim expects education to be. They maintain that education should:... live up to a cer:tain amount of specialisation... One of the functions of education is to prepare people for the particular milieu for which they are destined... Since all are subjected to the school regime, education will build up the necessary consensus for society to continue... Education must provide the norms and values that the child needs. It must also... provide a cognitive framework in terms of which the child can come to under- stand the world and acquire knowledge. Ibis involves creating a stable and structural environment in which these things are clearly defined and where conformity to them is demanded by those in authority. Source: Haralambos, M. & Holborn, M. 1990. Sociology: Themes and Perspectives. London: Collins Education, p. 229.  9 Durkheim (1956: 122) states that the person who emerges from the education system is not the person made by nature, but the person whom society wishes him or her z 0 to be and for whom the internal economy calls. Education is social in nature and is a u means to an end. It is not the individual being educated, the teachers or the educa- :J 0 tional who define the end product, but society. The primary functions w u. of education are therefore not to develop the abilities and potential of children per se, 0 >- but to develop those abilities and capabilities that society needs. School education is a (!) 0...J social institution and its ideals should be decided by society (Morrish, 1978:31). 0 u 0 ({) 1.3.1.2 Parsons z ({) Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) was an American professor of sociology at Harvard w !r University from 1927 to 1973. He was the author of numerous publications , including 0 w Tbe Structure of Social Action (1937), Tbe Social System 0951) , Social Structure and I 1- Personality (1964), Tbe System of Modern Societies (1971) and Tbe Structure and Change !r of the Social System (1983). He made a great contribution to the field of sociological w l- theory, particularly through his development of a general 'theory of action '. a. - f- w Does it not take a nation to raise a child? u 0 Ul z 2.2 SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS...J 0 0 I There are many different types of social institution. In this section , we will consider five u Ul prominent social institutions : the family, the school, religion, economies and governrnents I w f- or political organisations. Social institutions can be understood as established sub-systems IL 0 that satisfy the basic needs of society, define dominant social values , establish patterns of w...J social behaviour, support society's survival and modify roles for individuals. Each institu- 0 0: tion has different responsibilities that contribute to the overall functioning and stability w I of a society. This helps to decre ase chaos and increase structure , thereby enabling each f- 0 institution to fulfil its role of social modification easily (Doda, 2005; Boundless, 2015). z - (.') 0 to ensure that they perform well in society. This is because social institutions have a...J 0 reciprocal impact on each other. If one major social institution undergoes fundamental u w changes, others will be affected as well. Competition also plays a big role among social ui z institutions owing to similarities in their responsibilities and functions. As a result , it 0 f= has been recognised in most societies that some institutions should play a superior :J f- role to others. But regardless of the degree of superiority of an institution, there is no f= Ul z permanency in social institutions as their functions sometimes change (Doda, 2005;...J Boundless, 2015). For example, if a certa!_n institution fails to fulfil a specific need, :! u another institution has to take the lead and fulfil that need. 0 Ul z 0 2.2.1 The family as a social institution u :J 0 Although the family is recognised as a micro unit of any social system, it remains at w IL the centre of social life. It sometimes passes on generational traditions, and provides 0 >- family members with a home, a sense of belonging and As parents instil (.') 0...J generational some parents ensure that the ethnic culture and in-group cohe- Q siveness is maintained in the family. Therefore, children's decisions to maintain their u 0 Ul ethnic culture and in-group cohesiveness are influenced by other members of the family. There are certain legal and cultural rights and responsibilities that members of Ul w a family group are expected to conform to. These are spelt out in formal laws as well u f= u as in informal tradition s (Newman, 2009). For example , the Zulu royal family's values - (.') 0 so that their opinions would be considered and respected, and their freedom would...J Q be entrenched in the Constitution. () 0 (/) 0 Before proceeding to the next section, which looks at the ecology of the school, reflect on what you have learnt by answering these questions. 1. If a certain institution fails to fulfil a specific need, what will happen? 2. What does it mean when we say that family is socially constructed? 3. Why are families referred to as both public and private? 4. Is it true that the school expands the social world of learners? Support your answer with examples. 5. Karl Marx said, 'Religion is the "opium of the people" -it masks domination and diverts workers from rebelling against exploitation.' Do you agree with this state- ment? Explain your answer.. 6. After reading the case study on page 34 (Section 2.2.4), which economic system would you consider most suitable to be adopted in Africa: socialism or capitalism? Support your answer with examples. 7. Which type of government rules your country? Explain your answer. 2.3 ECOLOGY OF THE SCHOOL It is important to have a clear understanding of the concept of the school ecology (school climate or environment) and how this concept interconnect s all of the various aspects of the school as an agent of socialisation. A healthy school ecology reflects the school's own personality and unique character. It is an extremely powerful force , playing an important role as a positive and/ or negative influence on the school commu- nity, and it is interconnected with the values of the society that it serves. The following distinctive features of a school ecology can be identified (Botha, 2002: 44-45): The school is protected against unreasonable pressure from the community and parents. The principal is a dynamic leader who supports his or her staff while pursuing high academic standards , ensuring that the school 's needs are met in terms of national policies. The staff members tend to maintain high standards of conduct and display initiative by also setting high standards for learners. Learners work hard, are highly motivated and treat studious classmates with respect in classrooms with acceptable learner numbers. Resources are available and physical fa4:ilities are well maintained.  35 Teaching aids are available in well-equipped classrooms. Staff moral e is high and everyo ne is proud to be associated with the school. >- f- UJ There is a high involvement by all partie s concerned. u 0 (/) A recent model of human development positions the school and its ecology in the --' 0 social system 's context by integrating the ecological systems theory dev elop ed by 0 I Bronfenbrenn e r in 1979 and extrapolating this model to an education setting develop ed u (/) by Moos in the same year. UJ I f- u. 0 UJ --' 0 0: UJ I f- 0 z - '-' 0 --' 0 u UJ - f- A final systems parameter extends the environment into a third dimen- "' u 0 sion. Traditionally in the study of human development, the passage of time (/) was treated as synonymous with chronological age, Since the early 1970s,..J 0 however, an increasing number of investigators have employed research 0 I designs in which time appears not merely as an attribute to the growing u (/) human being, but also as a property of the surrounding environment not "' I f- only over the life course, but across historical time (Baltes & Schaie, 1973; u. 0 Clausen , 1986, Elder, 1974, Elder et al., 1993). A chronosystem encompasses change or consistency over time not only "' 0..J 0:: in the characteristics of the person but also of the environment in which that person lives (for example , changes over the life course in the family "'f- I 0 structure, socio-economic status, employment, place of residence or the z - Cl 0..J Source: Bronfenbrenner, U. 1994. Ecological Models of Human Development. International 0 Encyclopediaof Education, 3(2). Oxford: Elsevier, p. 40. u "' ui z In terms of this model and the five levels that it proposes , Bronfenbrenner places the 0 i= school in the microsystem where the school forms part of the holistic environment of :J f- the ecology of the school. i= (/) z The organisational characteristics of a school's ecology are represented by the..J following features of the structural, functional and built environment (see Figure 2.2): - f- 1. Do you agree with the functionalist view that the school is society's primary instru- w 0 ment for meeting the demands of our modern political, social and economic life? 0 (/) Substantiate your answer. z 2. Why is political socialisation especially important in schooling in South African 0 _j 0 society today? Substantiate your answer. I 0 3. Do schools in South Africa today live up to these processes? Substantiate your (/) w answer. I f- u. 0 w 2.4.1.2 The perspective of conflicttheory (Marxism) on schooling in _j 0 a: society w I Conflict (Marxist) theorists view schooling as a social practice that is supported and f- 0 utilised by those in power to maintain their dominance in the social order. They see z - Cl 0 _j Q 2.4.1.2.1 Class consciousness, false consciousness and hegemony u 0 (/) Class consciousness is an awareness of membership in a group as defined by economic position. The individuals in a particular social class become aware that they share common interests and a common social situation. These individuals unite to pursue their shared interests. Sometimes a group's consCiousness regarding its class gives rise to a class struggle, for example, union-organising activity. This is because people who recognise and articulate their class position are more likely to promote their class interests. Class consciousness was formed in part by public schools and universities , which exposed students from one class to students from other classes (the working, middle or upper class). It is, therefore, likely that education gives knowledge and power to some of these classes to maintain control over the political system. For example, the upper class deprives the working class and the middle class of their voice in the political process (Borland , 2008). Karl Marx viewed class consciousness as crucial because members of a social class become actively aware of themselves as a class. When members of a social class lack this awareness, it leads to a distorted perception of the reality of a class and its conse- quences. This is called false consciousness. False consciousness is any belief or view that prevents a person from being able to understand the true nature of a It is also defined as a person 's inability to see where his or her best interest lies. Marx referred to the workers ' acceptance of ideologies that ran counter to their interests as false consciousness. This means that the development of class consciousness may be blocked by members of a class who accept the ideology of the dominant class (Feinberg & Soltis, 2004). True consciousness of a certain class (for example, a subordinate class) is impeded by the acceptance by a person from that class of the ideologies and values of the domi- nant class. When the dominant class succeeds in establishing its own mode of thinking amongst most members of the subordinate class, it is said to have established hegemony over the subordinate class. Hegemony means having influence and authority over others. This influence is expressed through ideologies , beliefs, perceptions, behaviour and social structures. The institutions of civil society (for example, schooling, the media and forms of popular culture such as music, art, film, television and radio) play a role in establishing hegemony. Thus, social orders are founded and reproduced within certain institutions. This is where the dominant class sometimes exerts power and domina- tion over the subordinate class in order to maintain social boundaries and rules. Other institutions (such as religious, educational, economic and political institutions as well as the institution of the family) also play in favour of the dominant class because they induce the subordinate class to consent to the dominant order. This means that some institutions are responsible for establishing the hegemony or ideological dominance of a distinctive type of social order (Feinberg & Soltis, 2004).  45 >- 1- 1. Do you agree that schools play a role in establishing hegemony? Substantiate your w answer. u 0 ({) 2. Explain what class consciousness entails. 3. Do you think that class consciousness is important in relation to schooling in South..) 0 0 Africa? Substantiate your answer. I u ({) w I 2.4.1.2.2 Neo-Marxism and education 1- u. Neo-Marxism is an approach that was developed to amend or extend Marxism and 0 w..) Marxist theory during the twentieth century. It refers to any theory that uses Marxism 0 (l: as a base from which to address historical problems. Its advocacy is the incorporation w I of various elements from other intellectual traditions in order to explain questions that 1- 0 were not explained in the works of Marx. This means that neo-Marxists attempt to fill z - (!) 0 traditional Marxist thought and attempt to bring it into modern political systems. They..) 0 maintain that the division between the powerful and the powerless is propagated by u w certain social institutions, such as schools and churches (Taylor, 1974; Au, 2006). ui z 0 f= 2.4.1.2.3 Neo-Marxist interpretation of schooling in a capitalist society ::J I- Neo-Marxists see schools as playing a vital role in legitimising the inequalities in f= ({) z society. They regard schools as being responsible for transmitting knowledge in..) - (!) 0 including trends and debates on the subject...J 0 understand the responsibilities of citizenship in local, national and international con- u 0 If) texts understand the links between this chapter and certain areas in Chapters 9 and 10 in this textbook. GLOSSARY citizenship cosmopolitanism education elitism patriotism 3. 1 INTRODUCTION Ancient and modem conceptions of citizenship encourage active participation , whether concerned with local, national or international affairs. In South Africa's constitutional democracy, the term 'citizenship ' reflects two distinct formulations : citizenship as a legal status (to be a citizen) and citizenship as a practice (to act as a citizen). International literature on citizenship education supports the claim that learning for democratic citi- zenship is not limited to the formal school curriculum. It also requires active community engagement, thus it tran sce nds a person's sense of 'localism' or affinity to his or her nation state. The goals of citizenship education in South Africa would be better served by cosmopolitan ideals , that is, preparing South African learners to act at a local , national and global scale. This chapter aims to introduce the reader to citizenship education as a craft (caught), not only a programme (taught). (In other words, citizenship requires a range of forms of learning both 'inside ' and 'outside' schools). It begins with the definition of the concept 'citizenship' and the development of theories of citizenship since its origins in the Greek city-state of Athens. The chapter gives consideration to British and American studies on citizenship education that support the claim that learning democratic citizenship is not limited to the formal school curriculum, but also requires active community engage- ment. At the same time , it traces the stages or phases of South African citizenship. In addition, it examines citizenship education and curriculum development in post-apart- heid South African schools. The chapter concludes by presenting a cosmopolitan view of citizenship and citizenship education that seeks-to prepare South African learners to act locally, but think globally. 54 oo ·o o· o ·o..-..- (.!) 0 to 'figh t for land and housing, for an end to forced removals , and for access to educa- _j Q tion, water, electricity , sanita tion, health care and refuse removal ' (Boyte, 2008: 5). The 0 0 Ul impact that Abahlali has o n civic life corroborates and throws light on how democratic agents are able to 'shift from conceiving themselves as victims or narrow interests, and learn to see themselves as shapers of the world and as citize ns' (Boyte, 2008: 2). Abahlali's dimension of collective. action shows that the active participation of citizens in democratic commu nities is likely to be an educatio nal one. As Boyte maintains, 'organ - izing and popu lar education... expand the civic talents and energies... to reverse patterns of civic decay and regenerate civic muscle' (Boyte, 2008: 6-10). Right to education 'We need to take time to teach ourselves our Constitution , so we can appreciate our rights,' President Jacob Zuma said dur ing his Human Rights Day address. On the same day, the lobby group Equal Education held a march. through Khayelitsha as part of a campaign to put minimum norms and standards in place for school infrastruc- ture. Unhappy with the progress of the government, the organisation brought a court case against Basic Education Minister Angie Motshekga and hine MECs earlier this year. They seek an order requiring Motshekga to promulgate minimum norms and standards, as she is empowered to do by the South African Schools Act (1996). In February, Motshekga told Parliament that around 1 700 schools were without water svpply and around 700 had no toilets. There was an estimated shortfall of 63 000 classrooms and 15 000 schools were without libraries. In addition, there were schools built entirely of mud. Source : Adapted from John , V. 2012. Equal Education Threatens Court Action to Allow March. [Online], Available: htlp :// mg.co.za/article/20 12-03-20-equal-educat ion-th reatens-court-actio n-to-allow-march Accessed 15 December 20 15. Questions 1. Look at the Constitution of the "Republic of South Africa ( 1996). Identify civil rights, political rights and social rights found in the document. 2. Is the right to education a civil, political or social right? 3. Do you think the right to education is being violated according to the case study? Again, refer to the South African Constitution of 1996. ln the section that follows , we turn our attention to the origin and development of citizenship in South Africa.  57 3.3 HISTORY OF SOUTH AFRICAN CITIZENSHIP FROM 1910 TO 1996 z 0 From an historical perspective, Britain and South Africa have ties that date back to the u early nineteenth century. The concept of apartheid citizen ship in South Africa has its :::> 0 roots in 'the English law of citizenship and nationality that originated in the common UJ Q. law concept of allegiance' (Schmidt, 1993: 212). As a consequence of this British-South I en African relationship, when the Boer republics (Transvaal and Orange Free State) and the zUJ N British colonies (Cape Colony and Natal) formed the South African Union government i= 0 in 1910, there were no South African citizens, only British subjects and Union nationals. The beginning of disparate 'South African citizenship' under the Union government "'a: UJ came with the Natives Land Act (Act No. 26 of 1913), which set up reserves (later f- a. known as 'homelands ') for Black people (see Section 2.2.5). The South African govern- :r u ment gave effect to the colonial provisions of the Land Act of 1913 by introducing the Natives Urban Areas Act (Act No. 20 of 1923). By separating native locations from towns administratively, the act segregated Black and White people socially (they had been separated territorially earlier, purportedly on hygienic grounds). According to the act, urban local authorities were given powers to 'define, set apart and lay out one or more areas of land for the occupation, residence and other reasonable requirements of natives, either as extensions of any area already set apart for that purpose or as separate areas' (Union of South Africa, 1923: 142). In an unprecedented move, the South Citizenship Act (Act No. 44 of 1949) was essentially substituted for that of Union nationality. The act, which repealed the existing statutes dealing with British subjects and lJnion nationals , read as follows : Any reference in any law to a Union national or to Union nationality shall be deemed to be a reference to a South African citizen or to South African citizenship, as the case may be, and any reference to a British subject shall be deemed to be a reference to a South African, a citizen of a Commonwealth country or a citizen of the Republic of Ireland , and any rtference to natural-born British subjects shall be deemed to be a reference to persons who by virtue of birth or descent are South African citizens or citizens of any Commonwealth country or of the Republic of Ireland , or who have at any time been such citizens and are not aliens. Source: Union of South Africa. 1949. South African CitizenshipAct. Cape Town: Government Printers, p. 448. The South African Citizenship Act (1949) was ground-breaking in three ways: It created the new status of South African citizenship, essentially substituting the status for that of Union nationality. The act highlighted the Union's long struggle to give substance to the original Hertzog motto of 'South Africa First' and to free the country from all the confines of its colonial past. Unsurprisingly, the act ushered in a seemingly common albeit unequal South African society. While Black South Africans were denied full citizenship, the Nationa lists espoused a form of apartheid race-based citizenship. According to this concept of citizenship, 58 the South African population was classified into different race groups. The PQQula.ti_on z Registration Act (Act No. 30 of 1950) classified South African citizens into four different 0 race groups: Europeans (Whites), Coloureds, Indians and Africans (Blacks). In 1959, u ::> 0 Prime Minister Verwoerd, who was in power between 1958 and 1966, got Parliament w u. to agree to the Promotion of ,Bantu Self-Government Act (Act No. 45 of 1959), which 0 >- provided for the establishment of ten independent or autonomous Black states. As a (!) 0 point of departure, the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act (Act No. 26 of 1970) attested...J Q to the National Party's commitment to race- and ethnicity-based notions of citizenship. u 0 0 (/) skei, Bophuthatswana, Venda and Ciskei (TBVC). Four were 'self-governing': Lebowa, - QwaQwa, KwaZulu and Gazankulu. The last two were still in the formative process: Kangwane and Kwandebele. Effectively, Africans had no civic, political or social citi- zenship rights, save in the Bantustan states. In practice, homeland citizenship meant i that all of the Bantu in the Republic of South Africa, whether domiciled in established ! African reserves or not, were considered to be citizens of the Black areas for their ' 1 ethnic groups and to have citizenship rights there. In order to foster homeland ethnic- : based citizenship, the National Party's strategy took two forms : an enforced division of the Bantu along ethnic lines an imposed separation between urban (town) residents and rural (countryside) :: residents.......... As far as citizens' garticipatiof,l was concerned, the apartheid race -base d and homeland ethnicity-based citizenship phases can be summarised in the following way: Blacks were not really citizens since they did not exercise full civil, social or political rights in 'White ' South African government affairs. In order to arm itself against the accusation of injustice , the South African apartheid government resorted to the device of giving Black citizenship (that is civil, political and social rights) in the homelands. the formulation and defence of democratic ideals of citizenship are attributed to the broader struggle. In order to put the ideal of citizen participation into action, the Congress of the People was held in Kliptown, Johannesburg in June 1955, to draw up a charter for the democratic South Africa of the future. The charter's preamble called for a highly participatory notion of democratic citizenship: We, the people of South Africa , declare for all our country and the world to know: that South Africa belongs to all who live in it, black and white... that our country will never be prosperous or free until all our people live in brotherhood, enjoying equal rights and opportunities... that only a democratic state, based on the will of the people, can secure to all their birthright without distinction of colour, race, sex or beliif. Source: The Freedom Charter. 1955. Johannesburg: Kliptown, p. 1.  59 There are three points worth noting about the Freedom Charter's concept of citizenship. It starts from the premise that South Africa does not have citizens and non-citizens. z 0 By so doing, it offers an early indication that the racial as well as the ethnic 0 presumptions underlying both the South African Citizenship Act (1949) and the ::J 0 Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act (1970) seem to be inconsistent with the demo- w a. cratic project in the maximali st sense. !' If) It makes the highly plausible claim that only a democratic state based on 'the will zw N of the people ' is likely to bring prosperity and secure individual liberties. f= 0 In short, in South Africa, the Athenian concept of active, participatory citizenship was "'a: w echoed in the Freedom Charter as well as in the anti-apartheid struggle movement of l- a. q: the 1980s. r 0 The concept of active citizenship envisioned in the 1996 Constitution also reflects the tradition of the Freedom Charter. Its beginning was marked by the passage of the Restoration of South African Citizenship Act (No. 73 of 1986), enacted to provide for the granting of South African citizenship to certain citizens of Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda and Ciskei with effect from 1 January 1994. The restoration period is important in the history of South African citizenship for three reasons. It acknowledged that the segregationists' experiment to divide South African society was ill-advised, at best well-intentioned, but poorly conceived (at worst, it was surely deeply immoral). It recognised that the conflicting notions of social membership are not compatible with a united , free and democrati c South Consequently, it made it apparent that subscribing to a notion of equal citizenship builds social cohesion by strengthening and consolidating South Africa's democracy, which is also a goal of the common good. A significant piece of legislation towards common South African citizenship was the Restoration and Extension of South African Citizenship Act (Act No. 196 of 1993). The interim constitution (the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993) provided that: There shall be a [common] South African citizenship.... Every person who is a South African citizen shall... be entitled to enjoy all rights, privileges and benefits of South African citizenship , and shall be subject to all duties, obligations and responsibilities of South African citizenship. Source: Republic of South Africa. 1993. The Constitution.Cape Town: Government Printers, p. 8; author 's addition. In terms of formal - (!) - i 0...J 0 The South The The Promotion The Bantu 0 0 Phase 2: African Population of Bantu Self- Homelands (/) Apartheid Citizenship Registration government Citizenship citizenship Act (Act No. Act (Act No. Act (Act No. 45 Act (Act No. 44 of 1949) 30 of 1950) of 1959) 26 of 1970) ' - The The Restoration The South The restoration Restoration of and Extension Phase 3: African and extension ' South African of South African Restorative · Citizenship of citizenship Citizenship Citizenship Act citizenship Act (Act No. to all South Act (Act No. (Act No. 196 of 88 of 1995) Africans 73 of 1986) 1993) ·-. The The In South Africa , Single, Constitution Constitution constitution aI non- Phase 4: of the of the democracy is a ' racial and Common Republic of Republic of legal status (to be·a democratic citizenship South Africa South Africa citizen) and practice form of (1993) (1996) (to act as a citizen) citizenship '· - Figure 3.3 Phases or stages of South African citizenship In contra st to a citizenship that was marked by segregation and apartheid , the final Constitution (1996) has reconstituted national citizen ship in South Africa in terms of a norm of equality (in oth er words, all South Africans are equally subject to the duties and respon sibilities of citizen ship ). In the activity that follows , we consider some of the international literature on citizenship education. 1. In her essay 'Citizenship Challenges for South Africa's Young Democracy' (2001: 1-17), Ramphele explores the complexities of defining citizenship and challenges the tendency to assume that there is one form of citizenship. Do you agree? 2. According to Enslin (2003: 73), 'recent transition and the radical break with the past that it is supposed to represent means that South Africans do not yet have a settled concepnon of citizenship to draw on.... Thus citizenship education too is still in a formative stage'. What are your thoughts on this?  61 3.4 CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION IN THE UNITED KINGDOM, THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND z SOUTH AFRICA 0 () Citizenship education has evolved in different ways and at different paces in different :::J 0 UJ countries. This section focuses on citizenship education programmes in the countries D.. of the European Union (particularly the United Kingdom) as well as the United States I (/) of America and South Africa. According to Cecchini (2004: 1), the trend in Europe has z UJ N been to establish a movement for citizenship education. This movement is evidenced i= by the fact that European governments are putting citizenship education high on the u international agenda. Furthermore, a number of studies have been conducted in this "'ll: UJ field. Over the years, there has been a noticeable intensification of initiatives in citi- I- D.. 4: zenship education. Cecchini (2004 : 1) mentions the following initiatives by European I () governments to highlight the importance of citizenship education in their countries: The Council of Europe Heads of State and Government declared Education for Democratic Citizenship as the main priority in its educational programme in 1997. The study carried out by the European Union in 1998 included active citizenship in its key texts on lifelong learning and its current work programme on the future of education and training until 2010. Ministers of Education discussed citizenship education informally in the context of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development in March 2004. The Council of Europe declared 2005 the European Year of Citizenship through Education. The point of departure amongst the countries of the European Union regarding citi- zenship is the fact that like any culture, the democratic culture, which is made up of the shared values and common rules of society, needs to be transmitted and learnt. So citizenship learning is inherent in the European democratic system. In July 2004, the Ministers of Education of the European Union summarised their motivation for citizenship education in the following way. Recent changes affecting the social and cultural condition of our societies, such globalisation, immigration, communication technology and indi- vidualisation, present new challenges to the existing mechanisms by which norms and values that are the basis for social cohesion are transferred to the next generation of citizens. As European societies need the participation of active citizens, many member states are making efforts to enhance social cohesion by promoting active citizenship in democracies in schools as well in the field of lifelong learning. Source: Cecchini, M. 2004. Education for DemocraticCitizenshipin Europe: Concepts and Challenges for Action. Paper presented at the NECE Conference.Santiago de Compostela,23-26 July 2004, p. 2. There is a great variety in the concepts and terminology used in the discussion concerning citizenship education across Europe. Important differences also exist concerning-the following two issues: the organisation of citizenship learning in the formal curriculum in terms of time allocation, whether it is subject based or cross-curricular, or optional 62 educational policies, in other words, whether citizenship learning is a distinct part z of public policies (as it is in Croatia, Denmark, Finland, Sweden and the United 0 Kingdom) or one component of educational policies (as is the case in Austria, 0 0 Belgium, Germany, Lithuania, the Netherlands and other countries). UJ u. 0 Cecchini (2004 : 3) observes that these differences are a result of different historical, >- 0 0 educational and political traditions. She further states that citizenship has to do with...J Q the way in which a community defines itself: who is in, who is out, what the common 0 0 (/) identity is and what the ground rules are. Each community answers these questions in its own way over time. That is why citizenship is, by nature, open for different inter- pretations. However, what is important is spelling out its main features and constitutive elements. The paragraphs that follow review the development of citizenship education in the United Kingdom , the United States of America and South Africa. 3.4.1 Citizenshipeducation in the United Kingdom - Much of the international literature on education for citizenship and teaching of democ- racy supports both 'soft' and 'hard' notions of community participation and learning. ('Soft' learning refers to learning that relies entirely on the school curriculum, whereas 'hard ' learning refers to learning by doing , involving learning opportunities within as well as outside the formal school curriculum.) British educators have also added their voices to the verdict that citizenship is caught and taught, as Sutherland (2001: 72) maintained. Citizenship education was first introduced -as a statutory (or compulsory) subject the English national curriculum in 1999. This was a response to the recom- mendations of the Crick Report_ in 1998. Prior to the Crick Report, the parliament of the United Kingdom had passed a new Education Act in 1996, which led to the introduction of citizenship education in the national curriculum in 1999. This new curriculum was first implemented in September 2002. Himmelmann (2004 : 1-4) presents a concise exposition of citizenship education in the national school curriculum of the United Kingdom. He states that the new curriculum begins with cross-curricular, non-statutory guidelines at key stages one and two, which are the f q undation and intermediate phases, for learners between the ages of five and eleven. This curriculum is carried on with statutory responsibilities and guidelines at key stages three and four, which form the senior phase. The outcomes of this newly introduced citizenship education are defined as fostering the development of the following: social and moral (children learning self-confidence from an early age as well as the true meaning of behaviour that is both socially and morally respon- sible, in and beyond the classroom , towards those in authority and towards each other) community involvement (learning about and becoming helpfully involved in the life and concerns of their communities, including learning through community involve- ment and service to the community) politid ll literacy (children learning about how to make themselves effective in public life through knowledge, skills and values) (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 1998: 11-13).  63 z 1. Do you agree with influential authors such as Barber (1984 : 151) and Boyte 0 (2004 : 5) who argue that learning democratic citizenship is most likely to be 0 ::J achieved through active community engagement rather than through the formal 0 w school curriculum? n. I Ul zw N Since the specified outcome of 'political literacy' could not withstand the criticism that i= challenged its adoption, the competencies, abilities or outcomes of the national curric- u ulum had to be redefined as knowledge, skills and understanding (values or attitudes). "' a: w These competency levels (knowledge , skills and understanding) are regarded as the I- n. - (.') 0 on, efforts were undertaken to revitalise civic education. The se efforts were supported...J Q by the United States Department of Education and the United States Information Agency. u 0 1/) In 1987, the Center for Civic Education was founded. This is a non-profit organisation dedicated to 'fostering the development of informed , responsible participation in civil life by citizens committed to values and principles fundamental to American constitu- tional democracy' (Himmelmann, 2004: 5). This organisation published its first volume entitled 'CIVITAS: A Framework for Civic Education ' as Bulletin 86 of the National Council for Social Studies in 1991. The bulletin was followed by a book entitled CIVITAS, which stressed the following goals: civic virtue (the goal is to instil amongst citizens those habits that will contribute positively to the functioning of a democratic system as well as to develop in them the principles required for responsible citizenship) civic participation (the goal is to develop amongst citizens those skills that will enable them to participate in monitoring, formulating , implementing and enforcing public policy as well as to volunteer in programmes aiming at solving neighbour- hood and community problems) civil knowled ge and intellectual skills (the goal is to empower citizens with the knowledge and intellectual sk ill needed to monitor and influence the formation, implementation and enforcement of public policy as well as to participate in volun- tary efforts to solve neighbourhood and community problems) (Center for Civic Education, 1991: XXVII). According to CIVITAS, the rationale of civic education is education in self-government, membership and participatio n in society on the basis of constitutional principle s and values. Learners should know their rights and responsibilities, and be awa re of socia l issues and political institutions. CIVITAS further embraces diverse methods of learni ng. It outlines potential lesso n topic s for schools, including short statements and content information (see Section 2.4.1.1.3). In addition, it supplies information on objectives, lists outcomes of lesson s and shows frames of referenc e with conceptual, historical and contemporary perspectives. In 1994, the Center for Civic Education published a book entitled National Standards for Civics and Government , which had more than 600 contributors. The book starts by identifying the civic mission of schools. It goes on to explain the need for increased attention to civic education, and names institutions and groups of persons to whom the sta ndards that it describes are addressed: standards for students , for teacher s, for schools, and for state and local education agencies. The book also gives a definition of skills to be attained, nam ely intellectual skills (identify, describe, explain, evaluate a position and defend a pos