PSYCH Study Guide PDF

KEY DEFINITIONS, KEY TOPICS, KEY EXAMPLES, IMPORTANT TOPICS FOR MORE DETAIL AND CLARIFICATION ON VERY LAST PAGES!!!! 1. Importance of Operationalizing Variables Ensures abstract concepts are clearly quantified. Allows for consistent measurement and understanding of variables. Oper...

KEY DEFINITIONS, KEY TOPICS, KEY EXAMPLES, IMPORTANT TOPICS FOR MORE DETAIL AND CLARIFICATION ON VERY LAST PAGES!!!! 1. Importance of Operationalizing Variables Ensures abstract concepts are clearly quantified. Allows for consistent measurement and understanding of variables. Operational definitions help minimize ethical concerns by reducing ambiguity in study design. Operationalizing Variables: While operational definitions enhance clarity and consistent measurement, their role in minimizing ethical concerns is indirect and less emphasized in literature. Ethical concerns are more directly managed through consent, privacy, and approval processes. 2. Self-Testing and Feedback Referring to notes after every question during self-testing is detrimental. ○ Instant feedback weakens memory connections. ○ Delayed feedback enhances long-term memory. Self-testing without frequent note-checking strengthens retrieval and learning. Self-Testing and Feedback: Instant feedback does not weaken memory connections. Research suggests that feedback, whether immediate or delayed, is generally beneficial, though delayed feedback may better reinforce long-term retention in some cases. 3. Quasi-Independent Variables Variables that cannot be manipulated (e.g., intelligence). Differ from independent variables, which researchers can manipulate. Examples: ○ Intelligence (quasi-independent) ○ Drug dosage (independent) Quasi-Independent Variables: The example of intelligence as a quasi-independent variable could be improved with context, as intelligence is sometimes operationalized and manipulated through training programs. 4. Feedback Timing and Memory  Instant feedback during learning can harm long-term memory retrieval. Delayed feedback promotes better retention and deeper learning. Example: Immediate performance feedback in a memory task is less effective for retention than spaced or delayed feedback. Feedback Timing and Memory: The claim that instant feedback harms long-term memory is misleading. Immediate feedback during learning typically aids correction and understanding, while delayed feedback may consolidate memory better in certain situations. 5. Encoding Specificity Learning context impacts retrieval efficiency. Example: A student wearing the same perfume during study and test sessions retrieves learned material more effectively. Factors like environment, emotional state, or physical conditions enhance encoding specificity. Encoding Specificity: This is accurate, but the example could be expanded to highlight additional contexts (e.g., environmental congruence in learning and testing). 6. Controlling Demand Characteristics Strategies to prevent participants from guessing the study’s hypothesis: ○ Include unrelated measures (e.g., religious beliefs) to distract from the hypothesis. ○ Ensure operational variables are measurable but avoid revealing the study’s intent. ○ Anonymity alone does not deter hypothesis guessing. Controlling Demand Characteristics: Anonymity alone does not deter hypothesis guessing, but this section might overstate the utility of including unrelated measures, which might distract but don’t eliminate demand characteristics. 7. Study Strategies Using Generation The method of generation involves creating or teaching content to solidify learning. ○ Example: Teaching a friend material. ○ Non-example: Highlighting key terms or watching lectures passively. 8. Case Studies and Sampling Case studies focus on one individual. Opportunity sampling can be used to recruit participants, but the sample size remains one. Suitable for in-depth exploration of unique phenomena (e.g., a musician’s emotional expression). Case Studies and Sampling: Opportunity sampling for case studies is uncommon, as these studies usually focus on pre-identified unique individuals or phenomena. 9. Issues with Self-Report Data Common problems include bias: ○ Participants may not respond truthfully. ○ Self-reports are prone to inaccuracies or social desirability effects. Other challenges: Lack of control and limited causal inference. 10. Selective Attention Multitasking reduces learning efficiency and memory retention. ○ Example: Students checking their phones during lectures learn less than those who focus entirely on the lecture. Focused attention is critical for effective learning and comprehension. Selective Attention: Correct, though specifying multitasking's impact on working memory and cognitive load might clarify the point. Key Concepts: 1. Functions Controlled by the Medulla ○ The medulla is responsible for regulating essential survival functions such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure. 2. FMRI Advantages ○ FMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) has a spatial resolution of approximately 1 millimeter, allowing it to capture highly detailed images of brain activity. However, it has limitations in terms of real-time, everyday activity because the equipment is large and requires a stationary environment. ○ It is not the least expensive brain imaging method, nor does it have excellent temporal resolution (which refers to capturing fast changes in brain activity). 3. Brain Divisions and Survival Functions ○ The hindbrain is associated with critical survival functions, including movement and basic physiological functions like heart rate and breathing. ○ The spinal cord and midbrain are also involved in movement, but the hindbrain plays a central role in survival functions. 4. Action Potential and Axons ○ The action potential, which is the electrical signal that travels down a neuron, primarily travels through the axon. The charge difference between the inside and outside of the neuron allows the signal to move along the axon. 5. EPSP and Neuron Response ○ An EPSP (Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential) raises the membrane potential of a neuron. However, it is not always sufficient to trigger an action potential unless it reaches the threshold, which is typically around -40mV. 6. Amygdala and Emotional Responses ○ The amygdala plays a significant role in processing emotions, especially fear and anxiety. It is involved in the emotional response to stimuli and can make you feel nervous in new or uncertain situations.  7. Dopamine and Reward Systems ○ Dopamine is a neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, and the feeling of satisfaction. For example, it is strongly involved when you feel satisfied after eating something you enjoy. 8. Parietal Lobe and Sensory Processing ○ The parietal lobe processes sensory information related to touch and spatial relationships. This lobe helps you feel physical sensations, such as the sensation of a hug. 9. Sexual Selection and Evolutionary Fitness ○ Sexual selection refers to the process by which certain traits increase an organism’s chances of reproducing. For example, Goat B, which is smaller and better adapted to climbing, has higher evolutionary fitness due to its greater reproductive success. ○ When animals adapt to specific environmental challenges (e.g., food availability), the process is called adaptation. 10. Sexual Selection and Display Features ○ Display features in animals, like the colorful feathers of birds, are often used to signal health or genetic quality to potential mates. These traits often signal fitness and are part of sexual selection. 11. Flight Response to Danger ○ The flight response is an adaptive survival mechanism. For example, when a tiger approaches, running away (flight) represents an instinctual behavior to avoid danger and increase survival chances. 12. Evolutionary Psychology and Mate Preferences ○ Evolutionary psychology studies how human behavior is influenced by genetics and evolution. For instance, women’s preferences for male characteristics, such as scent, can be influenced by evolutionary factors like genetic compatibility. ○ Women are generally more choosy in sexual encounters due to the higher biological and physical costs of reproduction compared to males. 13. Fruit Flies and Evolutionary Studies ○ Fruit flies are commonly used in evolutionary studies because they reproduce quickly (every 26 hours) compared to humans, making it easier to study evolutionary changes over several generations. Important Terms to Remember: Medulla: Controls basic survival functions such as heart rate and breathing. FMRI: A neuroimaging technique with high spatial resolution but low temporal resolution, used to measure brain activity. Hindbrain: Part of the brain involved in survival functions like movement and heart rate. Axon: The part of the neuron where action potentials travel. EPSP: A type of electrical signal that makes a neuron more likely to fire.  Amygdala: Involved in processing emotions, particularly fear. Dopamine: A neurotransmitter associated with reward and motivation. Parietal Lobe: Responsible for sensory processing and spatial orientation. Evolutionary Fitness: The ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment. Sexual Selection: A form of natural selection that favors traits that increase reproductive success. Flight Response: A survival instinct where an organism flees from danger. Neuroplasticity and Aging Neuroplasticity decreases as we age, making it harder to learn new information. Sensitive periods are crucial for development (e.g., Genie case study shows lack of stimulation during sensitive periods hinders development). Synaptic pruning increases during development, but slows with age, impacting learning. Developmental Psychology Harlow's research on attachment showed that infants need comforting touch for proper development. Fine motor skills involve small movements like grasping objects. Piaget's assimilation: Children apply schemas to new objects (e.g., shouting "Daddy" for all men). Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development suggests learning happens with support from others. Attachment types: Ambivalent attachment shows inconsistent behavior (crying when mother leaves and returns). Sensory Perception Sensory adaptation occurs when you lose sensitivity to constant stimuli (e.g., getting used to your room's smell). Perceptual set: Expectations and experiences influence how we perceive things. Top-down processing: Using prior knowledge or expectations to interpret information (e.g., seeing a water stain and thinking it looks like Mother Teresa). Size constancy: Objects appear the same size despite changes in retinal image size (e.g., recognizing a person far away). Gustatory perception: The Primary Gustatory Cortex processes taste, where you perceive flavors. Brain and Sensory Processing  The brain converts stimuli from the environment into sensations, followed by transduction into neural signals and perception. Cranial nerves are responsible for touch sensations above the neck (e.g., on your face). Ear anatomy: The organ of Corti converts sound vibrations into neural signals. Brain and Sensory Processing: The section on fMRI is accurate but might benefit from emphasizing its trade-offs between spatial and temporal resolution explicitly. Movement and Action Potentials Neurons transmit action potentials down the axon, and an action potential is triggered by changes in the charge difference across the neuron’s membrane. Parkinson’s patients showed improvement in movement by listening to music while walking on a treadmill. Memory and Cognition: 1. Storage Stage of Memory ○ We store information for various amounts of time. ○ Information can be maintained for different durations, from seconds to a lifetime. ○ We access information when needed. ○ Encoding occurs into patterns of neural activity in the brain. 2. Misattribution in Memory ○ Example: Recalling a childhood event, but realizing you heard it from someone else. ○ Misattribution involves remembering information but assigning it to the wrong source. 3. Recency Effect in Memory ○ Memory is better for items at the end of a list due to short-term memory. ○ Recency effect: Items at the end of a list are recalled more easily. 4. Recall vs. Recognition ○ Recall: Requires retrieving information without cues (e.g., answering an essay question). ○ Recognition: Involves identifying the correct option from choices (e.g., multiple-choice test). 5. Short-Term Memory Duration ○ Short-term memory typically lasts about 10 to 30 seconds before the information is either forgotten or moved to long-term memory. 6. Encoding Specificity Principle ○ Memory performance is influenced by the match between the environment during encoding and recall (e.g., studying with coffee and recalling with coffee may improve performance). 7. Elaborative Rehearsal ○ Creating meaningful connections between new information and existing knowledge (e.g., creating a story to remember vocabulary words).  8. Recency Effect Manipulation ○ Asking participants to recall something after a short break or distraction (e.g., asking their birthdate after hearing words) can disrupt the recency effect. 9. Effective Retrieval ○ Organizing information (e.g., grocery list by category) and using context to help recall (e.g., remembering a movie when prompted). 10. Types of Memory ○ Semantic memory: Facts and general knowledge (e.g., information about sensation). ○ Episodic memory: Personal experiences (e.g., where you were during a significant event). 11. Memory Concepts: Clear and accurate overall, though the claim about disrupting the recency effect could be more nuanced—it depends on the timing and nature of the distraction. Social Psychology: 1. Foot-in-the-Door Technique ○ The strategy involves getting someone to agree to a small request, followed by a larger request (e.g., helping with one task, then another). 2. Diffusion of Responsibility ○ In emergencies, people assume someone else will take action, leading to a delay in helping (e.g., Bob assuming neighbors will call 911). 3. Attribution Theory ○ Situational Attribution: Blaming external factors for an event (e.g., blaming the poorly made steps for tripping). ○ Dispositional Attribution: Attributing the cause of an event to internal factors (e.g., someone's personal traits or decisions). 4. Social Psychology Concepts ○ Groupthink: People go along with the group consensus, sometimes leading to poor decisions (e.g., fans fighting after a game because "everyone else is"). ○ Social Loafing: Individuals exert less effort when part of a group than when working alone. 5. Peripheral Route of Persuasion ○ Involves subtle cues, like product placement, influencing decisions (e.g., craving Coca-Cola after seeing it in a TV show). 6. Ingroup/Outgroup Bias ○ Favoring members of your own group and stereotyping others (e.g., treating outgroup members worse than ingroup members). 7. Collective Ignorance vs. Diffusion of Responsibility ○ Collective Ignorance: People fail to act because they think others will.  ○ Diffusion of Responsibility: Individuals believe others will take responsibility for an action (e.g., in a group setting, no one acts). 8. Zajonc's Resolution ○ Zajonc suggested that the presence of an audience can improve performance on simple tasks but can hinder performance on complex tasks. 9. Altruism ○ Helping others without expecting any reward (e.g., assisting someone out of kindness). 10. Confederate in Experiments A confederate is someone secretly involved in the experiment, pretending to be a participant. Social Psychology: Generally accurate, but "collective ignorance" and "diffusion of responsibility" are sometimes used interchangeably, which could confuse readers. Key Terms to Review: Elaborative rehearsal Misattribution Recency effect Semantic vs. episodic memory Foot-in-the-door Diffusion of responsibility Peripheral persuasion Ingroup/outgroup bias Altruism Sensitization vs. Habituation ○ Sensitization: Heightened response to a stimulus after repeated exposure. ○ Habituation: Decreased response to a repeated, irrelevant stimulus over time. Example: If Adeline notices her friend’s throat clearing before he folds, it’s sensitization, as she’s becoming more attuned to that specific cue. Law of Effect (Operant Conditioning) ○ Behaviors that result in positive outcomes are reinforced (stamped in), while those with negative outcomes are punished (stamped out). Example: A behavior leading to reward is reinforced, and a behavior that leads to punishment is discouraged. Operant Conditioning Types ○ Escape: Performing a behavior to avoid an aversive stimulus. ○ Reward: Providing a positive reinforcement for a desired behavior. Example: Offering candy when Sally stops talking during class is Reward for her, and Escape for you, as it removes the distraction. Classical Conditioning Example  ○ Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between different stimuli. Example: A dog conditioned to associate one doorbell sound with treats, but not reacting to a neighbor’s doorbell, demonstrates discrimination. Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life ○ Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after conditioning, triggers a conditioned response. ○ Conditioned Response (CR): A learned response to the conditioned stimulus. Example: Pete experiences hunger as a conditioned response to the time of day (CS), even before he eats (CR). Operant Conditioning: Escape Learning ○ Example: A car's annoying noise until the seatbelt is fastened. This is an example of escape learning where the behavior increases to remove an unpleasant stimulus. Therapy Techniques ○ Implosive Therapy: Used for severe phobias, where clients directly confront the feared object or situation to stop avoidance behavior. ○ Systematic Desensitization: Used for milder phobias, gradually exposing clients to feared situations in a controlled manner. ○ Therapy Techniques: Correct but could specify that implosive therapy is less commonly used compared to systematic desensitization due to its intensity. Mirror Neurons and Empathy ○ Mirror Neurons: These neurons help us mirror the actions or emotions of others. Example: Jack feels his knee hurt when he sees a baseball player’s knee injury, demonstrating mirror neurons in action. Key Terms: Sensitization: Increased response to repeated exposure to a stimulus. Discrimination: Ability to distinguish between different stimuli. Escape Learning: Performing an action to avoid an unpleasant stimulus. Reward and Punishment: Positive and negative reinforcement in operant conditioning. Classical Conditioning: Associating a neutral stimulus with a natural response (e.g., bell sound with food). Mirror Neurons: Neurons that activate when observing others, fostering empathy. Flow and Stress: Loss of Self-Consciousness: When an individual is fully immersed in an activity and stops worrying about external evaluations (e.g., Ryan playing basketball). Emotion-Focused Coping: Managing emotional responses to stress (e.g., Rachel going for a run to cope with stress). Eustress vs. Distress:  ○ Eustress: Motivates and enhances performance (e.g., John before a presentation). ○ Distress: Leads to negative outcomes like burnout (e.g., Mark feeling exhausted from work). General Adaptation Syndrome: The body's response to stress, including an initial adrenaline rush (e.g., Jenna after a car accident). Coping Strategies: How we handle stressors (e.g., Braden journaling after his breakup). Motivation: Need to Belong Theory: Humans seek relationships due to an inherent need for social connection (e.g., the motivation for positive interactions). Overjustification Effect: When external rewards reduce intrinsic motivation (e.g., Vincent no longer enjoying painting after being paid for it). Drive Reduction Theory vs. Maslow's Hierarchy: Both theories explain motivation as the fulfillment of unmet needs, with drive reduction focusing on biological needs and Maslow covering a broader spectrum. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation: ○ Intrinsic: Driven by personal enjoyment (e.g., playing piano because you enjoy it). ○ Extrinsic: Driven by external rewards (e.g., working for a promotion). Emotions: Two-Factor Theory of Emotion: Emotions result from both physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation (e.g., the interpretation of excitement during physical arousal). Self-Perception Theory: People infer their internal attitudes by observing their own behavior (e.g., realizing you enjoy painting by doing it). Positive Reappraisal: Reframing a negative situation in a positive light (e.g., viewing a challenging assignment as a chance to grow). Homeostasis and Regulation: Homeostasis: The body’s process of maintaining balance, such as regulating temperature during exercise (e.g., Logan running in cold weather). Allostasis: A broader process involving the body’s ability to adapt to stressors. DSM-5 and Diagnosis 1. Comorbidity Issue: One challenge with the DSM-5 is that it categorizes mental disorders, which can lead to misdiagnosis when there are multiple disorders present at the same time (comorbidity). 2. Diathesis-Stress Model: This model suggests that mental disorders may develop when a person with a predisposition (diathesis) experiences significant stress.  3. DSM's Primary Purpose: The DSM-5 is primarily used to classify and diagnose mental health disorders based on specific criteria. 4. Criticisms of the DSM-5: One criticism of the DSM-5 is that it sometimes leads to overdiagnosis, categorizing more cases of disorders than may be accurate. Mental Health Disorders 1. Major Depressive Disorder (MDD): This disorder is characterized by episodes of low mood, low energy, and lack of motivation, which can come and go. For example, Chris's teammate exhibits these symptoms episodically. 2. Adjustment Disorder: Maddy might be diagnosed with this disorder as she struggles to cope with a specific loss (e.g., her cat’s death) over a period of months. 3. Schizophrenia Positive Symptoms: Ben experiences delusions (irrational beliefs), which are considered positive symptoms of schizophrenia. 4. Bipolar II Disorder: Kate’s fluctuating mood and energy levels (periods of low mood and high productivity) suggest Bipolar II Disorder, characterized by depressive episodes and hypomanic episodes that do not significantly impair daily functioning. Understanding Behavior 1. Dysfunctional Behavior: Behavior is considered dysfunctional when it disrupts daily routines or causes distress. For example, Angie repeatedly checking locks is a dysfunctional behavior impacting her daily life. 2. Prevalence of Disorders: Generalized Anxiety Disorder is more common in females than males, making it an exception to equal gender prevalence seen in other disorders like Bipolar Disorder. Key Definitions 1. Positive Symptoms of Schizophrenia: These are symptoms that add something unusual to a person's experience, such as delusions (irrational beliefs) or hallucinations. 2. Comorbidity: The presence of more than one disorder in an individual, complicating diagnosis and treatment. 1. Research Methods Confounding Variables: Variables that unintentionally affect the dependent variable, threatening internal validity. Strategies to minimize include random assignment and controlling extraneous factors. Reliability vs. Validity:  ○ Reliability: Consistency of a measure (e.g., a scale giving the same weight repeatedly). ○ Validity: Accuracy of a measure (e.g., whether the scale measures actual weight). 2. Learning and Memory Elaboration Strategies: Techniques such as creating analogies, using mnemonic devices, or relating information to personal experiences. Types of Memory: ○ Working Memory: Includes components like the phonological loop (verbal info), visuospatial sketchpad (visual/spatial info), and central executive (coordination). ○ Chunking: Organizing information into manageable units (e.g., grouping numbers in phone numbers: 555-123-4567). Proactive vs. Retroactive Interference: ○ Proactive: Old information interferes with learning new information. ○ Retroactive: New information interferes with recalling old information. 3. Biological Bases of Behavior Neurotransmitters: ○ Serotonin: Mood regulation, linked to depression. ○ Dopamine: Reward and pleasure, associated with addiction and schizophrenia. ○ GABA: Inhibitory neurotransmitter, reduces anxiety. ○ Norepinephrine: Alertness and arousal, linked to stress response. Hemispheric Specialization: ○ Left brain: Language, logic. ○ Right brain: Creativity, spatial reasoning. ○ (Left controls right, right controls left) Endocrine System: ○ Hormones like cortisol (stress response) and oxytocin (bonding). 4. Developmental Psychology Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development: ○ Sensorimotor: Object permanence (birth to 2 years). ○ Preoperational: Egocentrism, symbolic play (2-7 years). ○ Concrete Operational: Conservation, logical thought (7-11 years). ○ Formal Operational: Abstract reasoning (12+ years). Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages: ○ Examples: Trust vs. mistrust (infancy), identity vs. role confusion (adolescence). 5. Social Psychology  Cognitive Dissonance: Discomfort caused by holding conflicting beliefs; example: changing behavior to align with beliefs (e.g., recycling after learning about climate change). Conformity: Tendency to align behavior with group norms; example: Asch’s line experiment. Obedience: Tendency to follow authority; example: Milgram’s shock experiment. 6. Psychological Disorders and Treatment Major Depressive Disorder vs. Persistent Depressive Disorder: ○ MDD: Severe symptoms over a shorter duration. ○ PDD: Chronic, milder symptoms over a longer duration. Schizophrenia Symptoms: ○ Positive: Hallucinations, delusions. ○ Negative: Flat affect, lack of motivation. Therapy Types: ○ Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Focuses on changing thoughts and behaviors. ○ Humanistic Therapy: Client-centered, emphasizes growth. ○ Psychodynamic Therapy: Explores unconscious conflicts. 7. Key Terms Confirmation Bias: Tendency to seek information that supports preexisting beliefs. Placebo Effect: Improvement due to belief in the effectiveness of a treatment. Locus of Control: ○ Internal: Belief you control your destiny. ○ External: Belief external factors control outcomes. Fixed vs. Growth Mindset: ○ Fixed: Abilities are static. ○ Growth: Abilities can develop with effort. 8. Extra Topics Sleep and Consciousness: ○ Stages of sleep: NREM (light and deep sleep) and REM (dreaming, memory consolidation). Emotional Theories: ○ James-Lange: Emotions result from physiological responses. ○ Cannon-Bard: Emotions and physiological responses occur simultaneously. ○ Schachter-Singer: Emotions result from physiological responses and cognitive labeling. Stress: ○ General Adaptation Syndrome: Alarm, resistance, exhaustion stages.  Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Needs in order: physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization. Key Terms and Definitions 1. Operationalizing Variables Definition: The process of defining abstract concepts into measurable variables. Importance: ○ Ensures clear quantification of abstract concepts. ○ Facilitates consistent measurement and understanding. ○ Minimizes ethical concerns indirectly by reducing ambiguity. Example: Defining "intelligence" as the score on a standardized IQ test. 2. Self-Testing and Feedback Definition: A study method involving practice recall and feedback. Key Points: ○ Delayed feedback enhances long-term memory retention. ○ Avoid frequent note-checking during self-testing. Example: Testing yourself on vocabulary and reviewing answers later. 3. Quasi-Independent Variables Definition: Variables that cannot be directly manipulated by researchers. Examples: ○ Intelligence (quasi-independent). ○ Drug dosage (independent). 4. Feedback Timing and Memory Definition: The impact of feedback timing on memory retention. Key Points: ○ Delayed feedback promotes better retention. ○ Immediate feedback aids correction and understanding. Example: Providing answers after a delay during a training session. 5. Encoding Specificity Definition: The principle that memory is improved when retrieval conditions match encoding conditions. Example: Studying in a quiet room and taking the test in the same environment. 6. Controlling Demand Characteristics  Definition: Strategies to prevent participants from guessing the study hypothesis. Key Strategies: ○ Use unrelated measures. ○ Avoid revealing study intent. Example: Including a distraction task unrelated to the main study hypothesis. 7. Study Strategies Using Generation Definition: Actively creating or teaching material to enhance learning. Examples: ○ Teaching material to a peer (positive example). ○ Highlighting key terms (non-example). 8. Case Studies and Sampling Definition: Research focusing on one individual or unique phenomenon. Key Points: ○ Opportunity sampling may be used but is rare. Example: Studying a single patient with a rare neurological condition. 9. Issues with Self-Report Data Definition: Bias and inaccuracies in data collected through self-report methods. Key Issues: ○ Social desirability bias. ○ Limited causal inference. 10. Selective Attention Definition: The ability to focus on specific stimuli while ignoring others. Key Points: ○ Multitasking reduces efficiency. ○ Focused attention improves learning. Example: Avoiding phone use during lectures. Key Topics with Definitions and Examples Functions Controlled by the Medulla Definition: The medulla regulates essential survival functions. Examples: ○ Controlling heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure. FMRI Advantages  Definition: Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging captures detailed images of brain activity. Key Points: ○ High spatial resolution (~1 mm). ○ Limitations: Large equipment and low temporal resolution. Action Potential and Axons Definition: Electrical signals travel through axons, driven by charge differences. Example: Signal transmission in neural communication. EPSP (Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential) Definition: Raises a neuron's membrane potential closer to firing threshold. Key Point: Requires a threshold of ~ -40mV to trigger an action potential. Amygdala and Emotional Responses Definition: Processes emotions, especially fear and anxiety. Example: Feeling nervous in new situations. Dopamine and Reward Systems Definition: A neurotransmitter associated with reward and motivation. Example: Satisfaction after eating a favorite meal. Parietal Lobe and Sensory Processing Definition: Processes sensory information related to touch and spatial awareness. Example: Feeling the sensation of a hug. Sexual Selection and Evolutionary Fitness Definition: Traits increasing reproductive success are favored. Examples: ○ Goat B thriving due to climbing adaptations. ○ Bird plumage signaling genetic fitness. Neuroplasticity and Aging Definition: The brain’s ability to adapt and form new connections decreases with age. Example: Synaptic pruning during childhood development. Sensory Perception Definitions and Examples: ○ Sensory Adaptation: Getting used to a smell.  ○ Perceptual Set: Seeing a water stain as an image. ○ Size Constancy: Recognizing a distant person’s size. Memory and Cognition Key Points: ○ Storage Stage: Information retained for varying durations. ○ Misattribution: Recalling a memory but assigning it to the wrong source. ○ Recency Effect: Enhanced memory for the last items on a list. ○ Elaborative Rehearsal: Making connections to remember information better. Social Psychology Key Terms and Examples: ○ Foot-in-the-Door Technique: Agreeing to a small request leads to agreeing to a larger one. ○ Diffusion of Responsibility: Assuming others will act in an emergency. ○ Groupthink: Poor decisions from consensus pressure. ○ Altruism: Helping others without expecting a reward. Key Terms and Concepts to Review Elaborative Rehearsal Definition: A memory technique involving linking new information to pre-existing knowledge to enhance encoding and retrieval. Example: Relating new vocabulary words to personal experiences. Misattribution Definition: Attributing a memory to the wrong source. Example: Remembering a fact from a conversation but thinking it came from a book. Recency Effect Definition: Improved recall of the most recent items in a list. Example: Better remembering the last few items in a shopping list. Semantic vs. Episodic Memory Semantic Memory: Facts and general knowledge (e.g., knowing the capital of France). Episodic Memory: Personal experiences and events (e.g., remembering your last birthday). Foot-in-the-Door  Definition: A persuasion technique where agreeing to a small request increases the likelihood of agreeing to a larger request. Example: Signing a petition leads to agreeing to volunteer for the cause. Diffusion of Responsibility Definition: A reduction in personal responsibility when others are present. Example: Failing to help in a group setting, assuming someone else will act. Peripheral Persuasion Definition: Persuasion based on superficial cues rather than the content of the message. Example: Being influenced by a speaker's attractiveness. Ingroup/Outgroup Bias Definition: Favoring members of one's own group over those of other groups. Example: Supporting your school’s team over a rival, regardless of performance. Altruism Definition: Selfless concern for the well-being of others. Example: Donating anonymously to charity. Sensitization vs. Habituation Sensitization: Heightened response to a repeated stimulus. Habituation: Decreased response to a repeated, irrelevant stimulus. Example: Becoming more annoyed by a dripping faucet (sensitization) versus ignoring background noise (habituation). Law of Effect (Operant Conditioning) Definition: Behaviors followed by favorable outcomes are reinforced; those followed by unfavorable outcomes are diminished. Example: A student studies more after receiving praise for good grades. Operant Conditioning Types Escape: Performing a behavior to avoid an aversive stimulus. ○ Example: Putting on a seatbelt to stop a car’s beeping noise. Reward: Positive reinforcement for a desired behavior. ○ Example: Giving a child candy for cleaning their room. Classical Conditioning Examples Discrimination: Distinguishing between similar stimuli. ○ Example: A dog reacts to its owner’s whistle but not a stranger’s. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that triggers a conditioned response. Conditioned Response (CR): A learned response to the conditioned stimulus. ○ Example: Feeling hungry at a specific time daily (CS: time; CR: hunger). Therapy Techniques Implosive Therapy: Directly confronting a severe phobia to reduce avoidance. Systematic Desensitization: Gradual exposure to a phobia in controlled steps. Mirror Neurons and Empathy Definition: Neurons that activate when observing others’ actions or emotions, fostering empathy. Example: Feeling pain when seeing someone injured. Flow and Stress Loss of Self-Consciousness: Immersion in an activity where external evaluation fades. ○ Example: A musician completely absorbed in performing. Emotion-Focused Coping: Managing emotional reactions to stress. ○ Example: Going for a walk after an argument. Eustress vs. Distress Eustress: Positive stress that motivates. ○ Example: Preparing for a competition. Distress: Negative stress that harms well-being. ○ Example: Chronic work-related anxiety. General Adaptation Syndrome Stages: Alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. ○ Example: Initial adrenaline rush after a car accident. Motivation Need to Belong Theory: Humans are motivated by a desire for social connections. Overjustification Effect: Extrinsic rewards reduce intrinsic motivation. ○ Example: Losing interest in painting after being paid for it. Emotions Two-Factor Theory: Emotions arise from physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation. ○ Example: Attributing racing heartbeat to excitement when on a roller coaster. Positive Reappraisal: Reframing negative situations positively. ○ Example: Viewing a setback as an opportunity to learn. DSM-5 and Diagnosis Diathesis-Stress Model: Disorders result from a predisposition combined with stress. Comorbidity: Co-occurrence of multiple disorders, complicating diagnosis. ○ Example: Anxiety and depression in the same individual. Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) Definition: Characterized by episodes of low mood, energy, and motivation. ○ Example: Struggling to get out of bed despite wanting to engage in activities. Bipolar II Disorder Definition: Fluctuations between depressive and hypomanic episodes without significant functional impairment. Understanding Behavior Dysfunctional Behavior: Behavior disrupting daily life or causing distress. ○ Example: Obsessive lock-checking interfering with work. Prevalence of Disorders: Generalized Anxiety Disorder is more common in females, unlike Bipolar Disorder, which is equally prevalent. Research Methods Confounding Variables: Unintended variables that affect results. ○ Example: Testing a drug without controlling for participants’ diets. Reliability vs. Validity: Consistency vs. accuracy in measurements. Learning and Memory Elaboration Strategies: Mnemonics and analogies enhance memory. Proactive Interference: Old information blocks new learning. ○ Example: Struggling to remember a new phone number. Retroactive Interference: New information hinders recall of old information. ○ Example: Forgetting an old address after moving. Biological Bases of Behavior Neurotransmitters: ○ Serotonin: Regulates mood; linked to depression. ○ Dopamine: Influences reward and addiction. Hemispheric Specialization: ○ Left: Language, logic. ○ Right: Creativity, spatial reasoning. Developmental Psychology Piaget’s Stages: ○ Sensorimotor: Object permanence. ○ Preoperational: Egocentrism. Erikson’s Stages: Trust vs. mistrust in infancy; identity vs. role confusion in adolescence. Social Psychology Cognitive Dissonance: Changing behavior to align with beliefs. ○ Example: Recycling after learning about environmental harm. Conformity and Obedience: ○ Conformity: Aligning with group norms (e.g., Asch’s study). ○ Obedience: Following authority (e.g., Milgram’s experiment). Extra Topics Sleep and Consciousness: REM sleep aids memory consolidation. Stress: General Adaptation Syndrome outlines physiological responses to stress.