Psychology Study Guide Part 2 PDF

WEEK 7: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION Sensation vs. Perception: Sensation involves the detection of physical stimuli like light or sound through sensory organs (e.g., eyes, ears). It is the raw data that our bodies collect. Perception refers to how the brain organizes and interprets...

WEEK 7: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION Sensation vs. Perception: Sensation involves the detection of physical stimuli like light or sound through sensory organs (e.g., eyes, ears). It is the raw data that our bodies collect. Perception refers to how the brain organizes and interprets these sensory inputs to form meaningful experiences and make sense of the world. The Sensory Processes: 1. Detection: The process by which sensory organs interact with stimuli in the environment. 2. Transduction: This is the conversion of physical energy (such as light, sound waves, or chemical signals) into neural signals that can be interpreted by the brain. 3. Transmission: The neural signals are sent via sensory neurons to the brain for processing. Sensory Systems (6 Senses): 1. Vision: The eyes detect light, color, and movement, enabling sight. 2. Hearing (Auditory): Ears detect sound waves and convert them into neural signals for auditory processing. 3. Touch (Tactile): Skin receptors detect pressure, temperature, and pain, sending signals to the brain. 4. Taste (Gustatory): Taste buds on the tongue recognize different flavors such as sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami. 5. Smell (Olfactory): The nose detects odors through olfactory receptors, which send signals to the brain. 6. Proprioception: Involves sensing body position and balance through receptors in muscles and joints. Sensory Receptors and Neurons: Specialized cells (like rods and cones in the eyes, or olfactory neurons in the nose) are responsible for detecting specific stimuli in the environment and converting them into neural signals. Sensory Adaptation: The process through which receptors become less sensitive to constant stimuli (e.g., getting used to a persistent smell or the feeling of clothes on your skin). Senses, Receptors, and Pathways:  Smell: Olfactory bulbs send signals to the brain’s limbic system, influencing emotions and memory. Taste: Taste buds send signals to the brain, enabling the recognition of different flavors. Pain: Nociceptors detect damaging stimuli and send pain signals to the brain. Stress-Induced Analgesia: A mechanism by which the body reduces pain perception during high stress (e.g., adrenaline’s pain-blocking effects). WEEK 8: LEARNING Reflexes and Instincts: Reflexes: Automatic responses to stimuli (e.g., blinking when something approaches your eye). Instincts: Inborn, complex behaviors driven by survival, such as birds migrating. Learned Behaviors: These behaviors are acquired through experience, practice, or observation. Unlike reflexes, they are not innate. Associative vs. Non-Associative Learning: Associative Learning: Involves forming connections between two stimuli or a behavior and a consequence (e.g., Classical and Operant Conditioning). Non-Associative Learning: Involves changes in the response to a single stimulus, such as habituation (getting used to a repeated stimulus) and sensitization (becoming more responsive to a stimulus over time). Classical Conditioning (Pavlov’s Experiment): Pavlov’s Dogs: Dogs learned to associate a neutral stimulus (a bell) with food, leading to a conditioned response (salivation) when the bell rang. Operant Conditioning (Skinner’s Box): Behavior is shaped by consequences (reinforcements or punishments). Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior (positive: adding a reward, negative: removing an unpleasant stimulus). Punishment: Decreases behavior (positive: adding an unpleasant stimulus, negative: removing a pleasant stimulus). Shaping: Gradually reinforcing successive approximations to a desired behavior (e.g., teaching a dog to roll over). Observational Learning (Bandura’s Bobo Doll):  Children learned aggressive behavior by observing adults interacting with a Bobo doll. Cognitive Processes: Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation are key for observational learning. WEEK 9: EMOTIONS AND MEMORY Emotions: Emotions are complex reactions involving physiological responses (e.g., heart rate), expressive behaviors (e.g., smiling or crying), and subjective experience (e.g., feeling happy or sad). Emotions vs. Moods: Emotions are temporary and intense; moods are long-lasting and less intense. Primary Emotions: Universal emotions include happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, and disgust (Ekman’s research). Plutchik’s Wheel of Emotions: Adds more emotions like trust, anticipation, and joy, organized into a wheel to show emotional combinations. Brain Regions and Emotions: Amygdala: Essential for processing emotions, especially fear. Thalamus: Relays sensory information to the correct brain regions. Hippocampus: Links emotions to memories, influencing how we recall emotional events. Memory Stages: 1. Encoding: The initial learning and conversion of sensory input into memory. 2. Storage: The process of maintaining memory over time. 3. Retrieval: Accessing and using stored information. Types of Memory: Sensory Memory: A brief, immediate storage of sensory information. Working Memory: Holds and manipulates information actively, like a mental workspace. Long-Term Memory: Information stored for extended periods. Declarative vs. Non-Declarative Memory: Declarative Memory: Explicit memories such as facts (semantic) and personal experiences (episodic).  Non-Declarative Memory: Implicit memories like motor skills (procedural) and conditioned responses. WEEK 10: PERSONALITY Definition: Personality refers to unique patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that persist over time and across situations. The Big Five Traits: Openness: Open-mindedness and creativity. Conscientiousness: Organization and responsibility. Extraversion: Sociability and assertiveness. Agreeableness: Compassion and cooperativeness. Neuroticism: Emotional instability and anxiety. Freud’s Psychodynamic Theory: Iceberg Model: The psyche is divided into the id (instincts), ego (reality), and superego (morality). Defense Mechanisms: The ego uses strategies like repression, denial, and projection to cope with anxiety. Humanistic Perspective: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: A pyramid structure of needs, from physiological to self-actualization. Rogers: Emphasized self-concept and the importance of unconditional positive regard for growth. WEEK 11: PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS DSM-V: The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V) provides criteria for diagnosing mental health disorders. Types of Disorders: Anxiety Disorders: Conditions like GAD, panic attacks, phobias, and OCD.  Mood Disorders: Disorders such as depression and bipolar disorder. Schizophrenia: Characterized by delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thinking. Personality Disorders: Chronic patterns of behavior that deviate from societal expectations, such as antisocial and borderline personality disorders. WEEK 12: PSYCHOTHERAPY Types of Therapy: 1. Family Therapy: Focuses on improving communication and relationships within families. 2. Humanistic Therapy: Aims to help individuals achieve self-actualization and personal growth (e.g., person-centered therapy by Carl Rogers). 3. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Targets negative thought patterns and behaviors to improve emotional regulation and coping strategies. 4. Psychodynamic Therapy: Explores unconscious drives and childhood experiences to address psychological distress. WEEK 13: STRESS AND COPING Stress: Stress is the psychological and physiological response to challenges or demands. General Adaptation Syndrome: The body’s three-phase response to stress: alarm (fight-or-flight), resistance (adaptation), and exhaustion (depletion of resources). Coping Mechanisms: Problem-focused Coping: Directly addressing the source of stress (e.g., time management). Emotion-focused Coping: Managing the emotional response to stress (e.g., meditation, relaxation). Building Resilience: Developing emotional strength to cope with future stressors. 1.