Psychology Study Guide 4-8 PDF

Chapter 4-8 Chapter 4: Consciousness, Sleep, and Related Concepts 4.1. What Is Consciousness? Consciousness refers to our awareness of internal and external stimuli. Biological Rhythms: Natural cycles of change in our body's chemistry or functions. Circadian Rhythms: Biological c...

Chapter 4-8 Chapter 4: Consciousness, Sleep, and Related Concepts 4.1. What Is Consciousness? Consciousness refers to our awareness of internal and external stimuli. Biological Rhythms: Natural cycles of change in our body's chemistry or functions. Circadian Rhythms: Biological cycles that take place over a 24-hour period, largely regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). Role of Light: Light acts as a cue for aligning our biological clock with the external environment. Circadian Disruptions: Can be caused by traveling across time zones or working rotating shifts, leading to insomnia and decreased alertness. Bright Light Therapy: Helps in realigning circadian rhythms and combating sleep issues. Sleep Debt: The cumulative effect of not getting enough sleep, leading to adverse mental and physical consequences. 4.2. Sleep and Why We Sleep Sleep is essential for physical growth, maturation, learning, and memory. Hormones important for growth are secreted during sleep. Sleep's exact purpose is not fully understood but is believed to support cognitive functions. 4.3. Stages of Sleep Stages of Sleep are characterized by different brain wave patterns: 1. Stage 1: Transition from wakefulness to sleep; alpha waves turn into theta waves. 2. Stage 2: Presence of sleep spindles and K-complexes. 3. Stages 3 and 4: Known as slow-wave sleep, dominated by delta waves. 4. REM Sleep: Characterized by rapid eye movements, muscle paralysis, and vivid dreams. REM Sleep: Plays a crucial role in learning and memory. Dreams: May reflect important life events or represent a state of protoconsciousness. 4.4. Sleep Problems and Disorders Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep. Parasomnias: Unwanted behaviors during sleep, including: ○ REM Sleep Behavior Disorder (RBD) ○ Sleepwalking ○ Restless Leg Syndrome ○ Night Terrors  Chapter 4-8 Sleep Apnea: Breathing interruptions during sleep. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS): Infants stop breathing during sleep. Narcolepsy: Sudden sleep attacks during the day, often with cataplexy (muscle weakness) and hallucinations. 4.5. Substance Use and Abuse Substance Use Disorder: A pattern of compulsive drug use despite harmful effects. Physical Dependence: Body adapts to a drug, leading to tolerance and withdrawal. Psychological Dependence: Emotional or mental attachment to the drug. Common Drug Types: ○ Depressants (e.g., alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines) affect GABA neurotransmission. ○ Stimulants (e.g., cocaine, amphetamines) increase dopamine neurotransmission. ○ Nicotine and Caffeine influence acetylcholine and adenosine. ○ Opiates (e.g., morphine, heroin) act on the endogenous opioid system for pain relief. ○ Hallucinogens affect perception and alter sensory experiences. 4.6. Other States of Consciousness Hypnosis: A state of focused attention with increased suggestibility. Meditation: A practice of focused awareness and relaxation. Both hypnosis and meditation can be used in treating psychological and physical conditions.  Chapter 4-8 Here's a study guide based on the information provided, organized into key sections to help with understanding and memorization: Chapter 6: Learning Theories 6.1. What Is Learning? Learning: A change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience. Instincts and Reflexes: Innate behaviors that do not involve learning. Types of Learning: 1. Classical Conditioning: Learning through associations between events. 2. Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences of behavior. 3. Observational Learning: Learning by observing and imitating others. 6.2. Classical Conditioning Pavlov’s Experiments: ○ Studied dogs' reflexive responses to stimuli. ○ Demonstrated that a neutral stimulus, when paired with an unconditioned stimulus, can elicit a conditioned response. Key Concepts: ○ Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally triggers a response. ○ Unconditioned Response (UCR): Natural reaction to UCS. ○ Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral stimulus that triggers a conditioned response after association with UCS. ○ Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to the conditioned stimulus. John B. Watson and Little Albert: ○ Demonstrated classical conditioning with humans. ○ Showed that fears could be conditioned through associations. 6.3. Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner’s Work: ○ Operant conditioning focuses on learning based on the consequences of behavior. Reinforcement and Punishment: ○ Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior. Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus. Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus. ○ Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior. Positive Punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus. Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus. Reinforcement Schedules:  Chapter 4-8 ○ Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a set time period. ○ Variable Interval: Reinforcement after a variable time period. ○ Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses. ○ Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after a variable number of responses. 6.4. Observational Learning (Modeling) Albert Bandura’s Theory: ○ Learning by watching others and imitating their actions. Steps in Observational Learning: ○ Attention: Paying attention to the model. ○ Retention: Remembering what was observed. ○ Reproduction: Reproducing the observed behavior. ○ Motivation: Having a reason to imitate the behavior. Impact of Modeling: ○ Children and individuals learn both positive and negative behaviors through observing others.  Chapter 4-8 Chapter 7: Cognition, Language, and Intelligence 7.1. What Is Cognition? Cognitive Psychology: The study of how the brain thinks, perceives, plans, analyzes, and remembers. Concepts: Mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. Prototypes: Best examples or representations of a concept. Schemata: ○ Clusters of related concepts that help us organize and interpret information. ○ Involve routines of thought and behavior that help us function in daily life without overthinking. 7.2. Language Definition: A communication system with a set of symbols (lexicon) and rules for combining them (grammar). Language Acquisition: ○ Occurs naturally and follows a predictable sequence in early life stages. Influence on Thought: ○ Language can shape how we think and perceive the world. ○ The relationship between language and thought remains an active area of research in psychology. 7.3. Problem Solving Strategies: ○ Trial and Error: Trying different solutions until the problem is solved. ○ Algorithms: Step-by-step problem-solving formulas that guarantee a solution. ○ Heuristics: General problem-solving frameworks or shortcuts. Breaking Down Problems: Solving large problems by dividing them into smaller, manageable steps. Roadblocks to Problem Solving: ○ Mental Set: Relying on old strategies that may not work for new problems. ○ Functional Fixedness: Inability to see an object being used for anything other than its intended purpose. ○ Biases: Cognitive biases can affect decision-making skills. 7.4. What Are Intelligence and Creativity? Intelligence: A complex cognitive ability that involves reasoning, problem-solving, and learning. Theories of Intelligence: ○ Sternberg's Triarchic Theory: Includes analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.  Chapter 4-8 ○ Gardner's Multiple Intelligences: Proposes that intelligence is made up of several distinct factors (e.g., linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial). Emotional Intelligence: The ability to understand and manage one's own emotions and recognize the emotions of others. Creativity: The ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas or solutions; difficult to measure objectively. 7.5. Measures of Intelligence History of Intelligence Testing: ○ Binet: Developed one of the first intelligence tests. ○ Wechsler Scales: WAIS-IV (for adults) and WISC-V (for children) are widely used tests today. The Bell Curve: Represents the distribution of intelligence test scores, showing average intelligence and standard deviations. 7.6. The Source of Intelligence Genetics and Environment: ○ Intelligence is influenced by both genetic factors and early environmental stimulation. ○ A stimulating environment can enhance cognitive development. Resiliency: Highly intelligent individuals may be better at overcoming adverse conditions. Learning Disabilities: ○ Neurological conditions that affect specific areas of learning, such as reading or writing. ○ Example: Dyslexia—difficulty in reading despite average or above-average intelligence. Difference from Developmental Disabilities: ○ Learning disabilities are not related to overall intelligence levels, unlike developmental disabilities.  Chapter 4-8 Chapter 8: Memory and Its Functions 8.1. How Memory Functions Definition: Memory is a system or process that stores information we learn for future use. Three Basic Functions of Memory: ○ Encoding: The process of getting information into the memory system through automatic or effortful processing. ○ Storage: The retention of encoded information over time. ○ Retrieval: The act of getting information out of storage and back into conscious awareness through recall, recognition, and relearning. Atkinson-Shiffrin Model: ○ Describes memory as a three-stage process: Sensory Memory: Brief retention of environmental stimuli. Short-Term Memory (STM): Holds information for immediate use. Long-Term Memory (LTM): Stores information permanently with rehearsal. Baddeley and Hitch Model: Suggests a feedback loop between short-term and long-term memory. Types of Long-Term Memory: ○ Implicit Memory: Unconscious memory (e.g., skills, habits). ○ Explicit Memory: Conscious memory (e.g., facts, events). 8.2. Parts of the Brain Involved with Memory Engram: The theoretical physical trace of memory; research suggests memories are distributed throughout the brain. Key Brain Areas in Memory: 1. Amygdala: Involved in emotional memories; determines which memories to store based on emotional impact. 2. Hippocampus: Critical for encoding new memories. 3. Cerebellum: Processes procedural memories (e.g., motor skills). Flashbulb Memory: Highly detailed, vivid memories of significant life events, often associated with strong emotions. 8.3. Problems with Memory Forgetting: ○ Can occur due to brain trauma, disease, or amnesia. ○ Encoding Failure: Information never stored properly. Schacter's Seven Memory Errors: ○ Transience, absentmindedness, blocking, misattribution, suggestibility, bias, and persistence. Interference:  Chapter 4-8 ○ Proactive Interference: Old information interferes with learning new information. ○ Retroactive Interference: New information hinders the recall of previously learned information. Eyewitness Testimony: Often unreliable due to the flexible and fallible nature of memory. 8.4. Ways to Enhance Memory Mnemonic Devices: Techniques like acronyms and visualization to aid memory. Rehearsal: Repeatedly reviewing information to keep it in memory. Self-Referencing: Relating new information to oneself to enhance retention. Adequate Sleep: Essential for memory consolidation and overall cognitive function.