Approaches to Language Acquisition NOTES-ENG-101 PDF

# Approaches to Language Acquisition ## Lesson 1: Behavioral Approaches ### Theoretical Approaches to Language Aquisition - Acquisition of language points to native language acquisition, which examines children's acquisition of their first language. - Second language acquisition concerns acquisit...

# Approaches to Language Acquisition ## Lesson 1: Behavioral Approaches ### Theoretical Approaches to Language Aquisition - Acquisition of language points to native language acquisition, which examines children's acquisition of their first language. - Second language acquisition concerns acquisition of extra languages in children and adults as well. - Among the various theories attempting to explain how humans acquire language, the behaviorist theory stands out as a prominent perspective. - Developed in the early 20th century, behaviorism has significantly influenced our understanding of language acquisition. ### First Language - The first language, also referred to as the mother tongue or home language. - It is learned from childhood exposure and communication in the home. - Fluency in your first language makes developing and acquiring a second language easier. ### Behaviorism - Behaviorism is a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning, and conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. - Behaviorists believe that our actions are shaped by environmental stimuli. #### Theories on First Language Acquisition 1. **Burrhus Frederic Skinner (Operant Conditioning)** - A prominent psychologist, supports radical behaviorism and highlights the role of environmental factors and reinforcement in language acquisition. 2. **Leonard Bloomfield - (Structural Linguistics)** - Leonard Bloomfield is one of the two most prominent American linguists of the first half of the 20th century 3. **Charles Carpenter Fries - (Aural-Oral Method)** - Charles Carpenter Fries is considered the creator of the Aural-Oral method also called the Audio-Lingual method. ### Reinforcement - Increases the frequency of desired behavior and can be positive or negative. **Positive reinforcement** - Involves adding a pleasant stimulus after the desired behavior occurs. **Negative reinforcement** - Involves removing an unpleasant stimulus when the desired behavior is exhibited. ### Punishment - Is used to decrease the frequency of undesired behavior. **Positive punishment** - Involves adding an unpleasant consequence after undesired behavior occurs. **Negative punishment** - Involves removing a pleasant stimulus after undesired behavior. #### Skinner Categorized Verbal Behavior into Types: - Manding (requests) - Tacting ( labeling objects / events) - Echoing (repeating phrases) - Intraverbals (responding to questions) - Skinner’s theory has limitations, including the uniformity of language milestones across cultures, indicating an innate biological basis for language. - Noam Chomsky’s concept of the 'language acquisition device' suggests an inherent mechanism for processing language. - The critical period for language acquisition (ending around age seven) indicates biological predisposition not fully addressed by Skinner’s theory. - Despite its limitations, Skinner’s theory remains important in discussions on language. ## Lesson 2: Nativists Approach ### Nativists theory of Language Acquisition - The term nativist is derived from the fundamental assertion that language acquisition is innately determined, that we are born with a genetic capacity that predisposes us to a systematic perception of language around us, resulting in the construction of an internalized grammar of language. - Children use their Language Acquisition Device (LAD) to make sense of the utterances heard around them, primarily coming from the primary linguistic data or adult speech and create hypotheses about the grammar of the language (what the sentences are and how they are constructed). They use this grammatical knowledge to produce sentences after several attempts through trial and errors and form generalizations, or rules on constructing sentences. ## Lesson 3: Cognitive and Language Development (Piaget) ### Cognitive and Language Development (Piaget) - According to Jean Piaget, a Swiss Psychologist, children are neither driven by undesirable instincts nor molded by environmental influences. Rather than believing that children passively take in what they observe, Piaget believed that kids play an active role in learning about the world around them. - The emergence of language is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of development. - At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of constancy. - Egocentrism is another characteristic of the pre-operational stage. By this term, Piaget does not mean that the child is self-serving or selfish. Rather, children 4 and 5 years of age consider their own poin of view to be the only possible one. They are not yet capable of putting themselves in another’s shoes. - It's important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a quantitative process. That is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their existing knowledge as they get older. - Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process through these four stages. At age 7, children don't just have more information about the world than they did at age 2; there is a fundamental change in how they think about the world. #### Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes During This Stage - Begin to think logically about concrete events. - Begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal that in a tall, skinny glass, for example. - Thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete. - Begin using inductive logic, or reasoning about the world. ## Lesson 4: Social Interactionist Theory (Vygotsky) ### Lev Vygotsky - Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist and teacher who developed a theory about how our social interactions influence our cognitive development. #### Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development - It investigates how a person's environment shapes their own growth. - It makes the claim that learning is adult-guided and/or in collaboration with more knowledgeable others. #### A technique known as "reciprocal teaching” involves teachers and students working together to define and comprehend an idea before asking students to repeat it or use it in a different situation. #### More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) - Refers to someone who has a higher level of ability or greater understanding than the learner regarding a particular task, process, or concept. #### Proximal Development (ZPD) - The space between what a learner can do without assistance and what a learner can’t do with adult guidance or in collaboration with more knowledgeable others. ### Scaffolding - Is a method of guided learning that helps a student learn by pairing them with an educator. The educator should have greater experience with the task or process than the student, but they should also have an understanding of the level that the student is at and how they can address this level. - Scaffolding is used in conjunction with the ZPD. An individual's general knowledge provides that knowledge abilities, and prior experiences that form the framework for possible development. #### Implementing Scaffolding as a Learning Technique - At this point, kids collaborate with classmates and/or adults to complete tasks that they might not be able to finish on their own. ## Lesson 5: Constructivism Theory (Bruner) ### Jerome Seymour Bruner - Born: October 1, 1915, New York, United States - Died: June 5, 2016 (age 100 years), Manhattan, New York, United states - Education: Harvard University (1941) Duke University (1937) ### Constructivists Theory - Learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas using their current and past knowledge. This indicates that learning involves more than just receiving new information; it involves an active process where learners build new notions and concepts and interpret them in light of prior knowledge. Humans give new concepts significance, and this process is what learning is all about (Hein, 1991). #### Building Hypothesis - Constructivism’s central tenet is that knowledge is acquired by individuals building new notions and concepts and interpreting them in light of prior knowledge. Humans give new concepts significance, and this process is what learning is all about (Hein, 1991). #### Bruner’s Theory of Instruction - The teacher should... - Encourage students to discover ideas on their own. - Organize curriculum in a spiral manner. ### Bruner’s Ideas of Instruction - Spiral Curriculum - Is a method of teaching that has pupils revisit the same subjects again throughout their schooling. Every time the material is reviewed, the learner learns more about it. - Representation of Knowledge/ 3 Modes of Representation - Enactive representation (action-based) - Iconic representation (image-based) - Symbolic representation (language-based) - Enactive Action-Based (0-1 Year) -Thinking is based entirely on physical actions, and infants learn by doing rather than by internal representation. - Iconic (1-6) - Effective Sequencing - Bruner believes that teaching should guide the student in understanding, applying, and transferring the acquired knowledge. This approach also involves repeatedly revisiting fundamental concepts, expanding on them, and reaching a thorough understanding and proficiency. - Reinforcement - Rewards and punishments should be selected and paced appropriately. - Discovery Learning - Obtaining knowledge for oneself. - Learning becomes more meaningful when students explore their learning environment (when). ## Lesson 6: Theory of David Crystal on Child Learning Acquisition (Crystal) ### David Crystal - Is a British linguist who works on the linguistics of the English language. Crystal studied English at University College London and has lecture AT Bangor University and the University of Reading. ### David Crystal's Theories on Child Language Acquisition - Focus on how children naturally progress through stages of language development, from babbling to complex sentences. He explores the debate between innate linguistic abilities and learning through exposure, and examines the role of social interaction in language learning. - David Crystal has the theory that children learn language in five stage, which aren't all the things that they need it for. #### Stage 3: Two Word Stage - By now children would be asking lots of different questions but often signaling that they are questions with international alone, for example “Sally play in garden mummy?" this is made into a question by varying the tone of voice. #### Stage 4: Early Sentences - This is when children use increasingly complex sentence structures and begin to explain things. - Ask for explanation using the word "why?” - Making a wide range of request "shall I do it? #### Stage 5 - By this stage children regularly use language to do all the things that they need it for. ## Lesson 7: Stages on Child Language Acquisition (Aitchison) ### Jean Aitchison - Jean Aitchison, a prominent linguist and professor of language and communication, proposed a compelling model for understanding how children acquire language. She argues that language learning follows a biologically organized schedule, with children progressing through distinct stages. Aitchison's stages are not rigid, but rather offer a framework for observing the gradual development of language skills. #### Three Key Stages of Child Language Acquisition 1. **Labeling** 2. **Packaging** - Focus: Understanding the range and limitations of word meaning - Characteristics: - Children begin to grasp the nuances of word meaning, recognizing that words can have different meanings depending on context. They learn to use words in different grammatical categories (e.g., nouns, verbs, adjectives). - Children start to understand the concept of "category" and may over-extend words within a category. - For example: A child uses the word "dog" for all four-legged animals, demonstrating an over-extension within the category of animals. 3. **Network Building** ## Lesson 8: Krashen’s Monitor Theory (Stephen D. Krashen) ### “Theoretical Approaches to Second Language Learning: Krashen’s Monitor Model” - This study looks at the Monitor Model developed by Stephen Krashen, a prominent theory in second language acquisition (SLA). The five hypotheses of the model are discussed, with an emphasis on how they affect language teaching approaches and an acknowledgement of their limits. The second language acquisition is a complex area with many different theoretical perspectives. One unique perspective is offered by Stephen Krashen's Monitor Model, which emphasizes the importance of emotional factors and exposure to natural language. Because it emphasizes understandable material and the emotive filter concepts that have been widely incorporated into language education methods. #### 2. Monitor Hypothesis - The monitor hypothesis describes how language output is monitored and corrected using conscious knowledge of language norms. The monitor hypothesis, which works to explain the correlation between acquisition and learning. When a person monitors their speech for grammar, this is the practical result of learning. Through learning, we monitor what has been learned through acquisition. Excessive learning after acquisition can lead to overly edited speech that hurts communication because it’s too refined for general communication. #### 3. Input Hypothesis - The input hypothesis highlights the significance of giving students understandable material that is only a little bit above their present comprehension level. The input hypothesis is Krashen’s attempt to explain how a person can acquire a second language. This hypothesis has no connection to learning, only acquisition. In the input hypothesis, Krashen emphasizes the importance of providing learners with comprehensible input which is slightly above their current language level. The input hypothesis explains how we acquire language by being exposed to language that is comprehensible to us with a few unknown elements. #### Strengths - Emphasizes how important exposure to real language is for learning - Provides a structure for identifying and resolving the emotional influences on language learning. #### Criticism - The idea that learning and acquisition are distinct processes is not well supported by empirical evidence. - Has a propensity to oversimplify the intricate details involved in language learning. #### Implications for teaching in order to lower the affective filter, Krashen's model supports language training that places an emphasis on supplying enough understandable material and lowering fear. ## Lesson 9: McLauglin’s Attention-Processing Model ### John McLaughlin - John McLaughlin, a prominent cognitive psychologist, has significantly advanced our understanding of the Attention-Processing model. His research explores how individuals manage and direct their attentional resources in complex environments. #### The Attention-Processing Model - Provides a framework for understanding how attention is allocated, how it affects cognitive performance, and how it interacts with other cognitive processes such as perception and memory. - McLaughlin’s studies have investigated various components of this model, including the mechanisms behind attentional focus, the factors influencing attentional control, and the impact of attention on task performance. His work has elucidated how people concentrate on relevant stimuli while filtering out distractions, offering insights into the cognitive processes that underpin effective information processing. #### Implications of McLaughlin's Research - The implications of McLaughlin’s research extend to practical applications in fields such as education, user interface design, and mental health, where understanding and optimizing attentional control can lead to better outcomes. By contributing to the Attention-Processing model, McLaughlin has enhanced our comprehension of how attention operates and how it can be managed to improve cognitive efficiency and performance. #### Key Components of the Model 1. **Focal Attention** - Focal attention requires total concentration on information that has been mastered. This type of attention is crucial when learners engage deeply with content, allowing them to process and internalize language structures effectively. - Ex. Watching a Movie: Viewers concentrate on the main characters and plot, with less attention given to the background details or other moviegoers. 2. **Peripheral Controlled Attention** - Peripheral controlled attention involves less focus and is applied to processing information that is less familiar. This allows learners to manage cognitive load while still being exposed to new language elements. - Ex. Listening to a Lecture: You concentrate on the speaker while also being aware of the environment, such as other students or visual aids, which may capture your attention if they become relevant #### Implications for Language Learning 1. **Awareness of Learning Objectives** - Learners must be aware of what they need to learn to stimulate their interest. This awareness helps direct their attention to relevant language features, making the learning process more effective. ### Stages of Acquisition 1. **Initial Reliance on Controlled Processing** - At the beginning of their language learning journey, learners heavily rely on controlled processing. This stage requires significant cognitive effort as they consciously navigate new language structures. 2. **Transition to Automaticity** - With practice, learners begin to achieve automaticity in specific aspects of the second language (L2). This transition occurs when they develop associative connections between input and output patterns, allowing for more spontaneous language use. 3. **Restructuring of Interlanguage** - As learners progress, they experience qualitative changes in their interlanguage. This restructuring signifies their movement from one stage to another. ## Lesson 10: McLauglin's Attention-Processing Model ### John McLaughlin - John McLaughlin, a prominent cognitive psychologist, has significantly advanced our understanding of the Attention-Processing model. His research explores how individuals manage and direct their attentional resources in complex environments. #### The Attention-Processing Model - Provides a framework for understanding how attention is allocated, how it affects cognitive performance, and how it interacts with other cognitive processes such as perception and memory. - McLaughlin’s studies have investigated various components of this model, including the mechanisms behind attentional focus, the factors influencing attentional control, and the impact of attention on task performance. His work has elucidated how people concentrate on relevant stimuli while filtering out distractions, offering insights into the cognitive processes that underpin effective information processing. #### Implications of McLaughlin's Research - The implications of McLaughlin’s research extend to practical applications in fields such as education, user interface design, and mental health, where understanding and optimizing attentional control can lead to better outcomes. By contributing to the Attention-Processing model, McLaughlin has enhanced our comprehension of how attention operates and how it can be managed to improve cognitive efficiency and performance. #### Key Components of the Model 1. **Focal Attention** - Focal attention requires total concentration on information that has been mastered. This type of attention is crucial when learners engage deeply with content, allowing them to process and internalize language structures effectively. - Ex. Watching a Movie: Viewers concentrate on the main characters and plot, with less attention given to the background details or other moviegoers. 2. **Peripheral Controlled Attention** - Peripheral controlled attention involves less focus and is applied to processing information that is less familiar. This allows learners to manage cognitive load while still being exposed to new language elements. - Ex. Listening to a Lecture: You concentrate on the speaker while also being aware of the environment, such as other students or visual aids, which may capture your attention if they become relevant. #### Implications for Language Learning 1. **Awareness of Learning Objectives** - Learners must be aware of what they need to learn to stimulate their interest. This awareness helps direct their attention to relevant language features, making the learning process more effective. ## Lesson 11: Explicit and Implicit Model (Ellen Bialystok) ### Ellen Bialystok - Ellen Bialystok (1990, 1982,1978) is one of those who have proposed models of second language acquisition (SLA) using the implicit/ explicit distinction. These are the facts that a person knows about language and the ability to articulate those facts in some way. #### “Unanalyzed knowledge is the general form in which we know most things without being aware of the structure of dial knowledge"; on the other hand, learners are overtly aware of the structure of analyzed knowledge. #### For example, at the unanalyzed extreme of this knowledge dimension, learners have little awareness of language rules, but at the analyzed end, learners can verbalize complex rules governing language. #### Explicit - Explicit category are the facts that a person knows about language and the ability to articulate those facts in some way. It focuses on the conscious processes involved in learning a language. This approach emphasizes direct instruction, where learners are explicitly taught the rules and structures of the language. #### Main Features of Explicit 1. **Conscious Learning** - Explicit instruction involves learners actively engaging with the language rules and structures. This includes direct teaching methods where the instructor clearly outlines the learning objectives and provides structured guidance. 2. **Structured Learning Environment** - Explicit models often utilize a systematic approach to teaching. This includes breaking down complex skills into smaller, manageable parts and providing immediate feedback to students. Research indicates that explicit instruction can lead to better outcomes in language learning, particularly in areas such as grammar and vocabulary acquisition. #### Implicit - Implicit knowledge is information that is automatically and spontaneously used in language tasks. Children implicitly learn phonological, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic rules for language, but do not have access to an explanation, explicitly, of those niles. Implicit processes enable a learner to perform language but not necessarily to cite rules governing the performance. #### Main Features of Implicit 1. **Cognitive Mechanism** - Implicit learning is thought to involve different cognitive processes than explicit learning, often relying on procedural memory rather than declarative memory. - This means that implicit knowledge is more about “knowing how" rather than "knowing that". 2. **Research Basis** - Studies in implicit learning often utilize controlled learning tasks and input measurement to assess how well learners can use language structures they have not explicitly studied. 3. **Theoretical Framework** - The distinction between implicit and explicit learning has been influential in SLA theories, notably in the works of scholars like Stephen Krashen, who emphasized the importance of implicit acquisition in language learning. #### Automacity - Refers to the learner’s access to knowledge. Knowledge that can be retrieved easily and quickly is automatic #### Non-Automacity - Knowledge that takes time and effort to retrieve. #### Processing Time - Is a significant factor in second language performance, one that has pedagogical salience in the classroom. The length of time that a learner takes before oral production performance, for example, can be indicative of the perceived complexity of certain language forms in a task.. Mehnert (1998) found that planning time had a significant effect on the complexity of the utterance produced (see also Bialystok, 1982). ## Lesson 12: Social-Constructivism Model: Long's Interaction Hypothesis (Michael Long) ### Michael Long - The Interaction Hypothesis developed by Michael Long in 1981, posits that interaction plays a crucial role in second-language acquisition (SLA). Long's foundational world, “Input, Interaction, and Second-Language Acquisition" emphasizes that modified input and interaction facilitate language learning more effectively than passive exposure alone. This hypothesis builds on ideas of comprehensible input asserting that negotiation of meaning during communication enhances understanding and retention of language structures. #### Learners acquire new language forms through negotiation of meaning during communication. - This process involves interactions where learners and native speakers address misunderstandings, enhancing comprehension and language production. Such negotiation allows learners to modify their output, receive feedback, and focus on both form and meaning, facilitating second language (L2) development. Engaging in communicative tasks promotes these interactions, enabling learners to practice language in context and solidify their understanding of linguistic structures. #### Example 1: Classroom Setting - In a classroom where a teacher is instructing a group of second language learners, the teacher might say: Teacher: "Today, we are going to learn about animals. Can anyone tell me what sound a cow makes?" Student: "A cow say moo." Teacher: "Good try! But we say, 'A cow says moo.' Let's say it together; 'A cow says moo.'" - In this scenario, the teacher not only corrects the student but also models the correct form, allowing for repetition and reinforcement. #### This example illustrate how modified interaction between native speakers and second language learners can enhance understanding and facilitate language acquisition. By providing corrections, explanations, and opportunities for practice, native speakers play a crucial role in the learning process. - **Role of Interaction:** Long argues that face-to-face interaction is essential for second language acquisition, as it facilitates comprehensible input through negotiation of meaning. - **Modified Input**: He emphasizes that modified input-where speakers adjust their language to enhance understanding -is crucial for learners to acquire new language features effectively. - **Negotiation of Meaning:** Long highlights that interactional modifications during conversations help learners notice gaps in their knowledge, which is vital for language development. - **Task-Based Learning:** He notes that tasks requiring information exchange promote interactional restructuring, aiding comprehension and acquisition. #### Key Points 1. Social constructivism emphasizes learning through social interaction. 2. Knowledge is shaped by individual experiences and context. 3. Michael Long’s Interaction Hypothesis focuses on language acquisition. 4. Interaction enhances understanding and retention of language. 5. Modified input aids second language learners effectively. 6. Corrections and explanations improve communication skills significantly. 7. Key elements of Long’s Hypothesis include face-to-face interaction and task-based learning. ## Lesson 13: Acculturation ### Acculturation - Acculturation was coined by; John Wesley Powell. - “The psychological changes that occur within a person due to cultural exchange that occurs as a result of extended contact between different cultures" #### Group / Individual Level Acculturation **Group Level** - Acculturation can be seen in immigrant communities adapting to a new culture. For example, a group of Spanish-speaking immigrants in the U.S. may start learning English to improve job prospects and communicate with others. Over time, their children might become fluent in both languages, using Spanish at home and English at school. As they adjust, the community might gradually use less Spanish in public spaces, blending both languages in their daily lives. **Individual Level** - For individual level, it can be similar with the group level. However they differ in motives and situation. One example is travelers from another culture engaged in acculturation either intentionally or not since they interact with people form a certain culture. Acculturation can significantly impact an individual's language by leading to the acquisition of new words, expressions, or even an entirely new language as they interact with a different culture. ### John Schuman's Acculturation Model - According to this theory, the success of learning a second language is closely tied to the acculturation process, meaning that how well learners adapt to the target language culture influences their language acquisition success. ### Eight Characteristics of Social Distance 1. **Social Dominance:** The power relationship between groups. 2. **Integration Strategies:** Assimilative learners give up native language practices and values. Preservative learners keep their own native language practices and values. - **Assimilative learner:** Give up native language practices and values - **Preservative learner:** Keep their own native language practices and values. - **Adoptive learner:** Develops two culture and change between both depending on the group. 3. **Enclosure:** Degree of sharing cultural construction (school, church, facilities, trades, profession, etc.) 4. **Intended Length of Residency:** - Length of a person's stay in a certain culture impacts the way they learn a new language. 5. **Cohesiveness:** - Connection between groups and stay together in a group with similar traits. 6. **Size:** - The impact of learning depends on the size of the natives communities 7. **Cultural Congruence:** - If the two group have a cultural values that are similar, it is easier to learn new language 8. **Attitudes:** - Learners’ attitudes toward the target language community and its members. Positive attitudes can facilitate learning, while negative attitudes can create barriers. ### Four Characteristics of Psychological Distance: 1. **Language Shock** - Refers to the unfamiliarity and difficulties in understanding or using a new language 2. **Culture Shock** - Feeling of confusion, uncertainty and anxiety when someone encounters a new and different culture. 3. **Motivation** - The level of motivation when it comes to learning a new language is different from each person and it affects their language acquisition. 4. **Ego Permeability** - Is about how open someone is to mixing new cultural ideas with their own cultural ways, which can influence language learning. ## Lesson 14: Competition Model (Competition Model) ### The Competition Model - The Competition Model is a psycholinguistic theory of language acquisition and sentence processing, developed by Elizabeth Bates and Brian MacWhinney (1982). The claim in MacWhinney, Bates, and Kliegl (1984) is that “the forms of natural languages are created, governed, constrained, acquired, and used in the service of communicative functions." - Furthermore, the model holds that processing is based on an online competition between these communicative functions or motives. The model focuses on competition during sentence processing, crosslinguistic competition in bilingualism, and the role of competition in language acquisition. It is an emergentist theory of language acquisition and processing, serving as an alternative to strict innatist and empiricist theories. According to the Competition Model, patterns in language arise from Darwinian competition and selection on a variety of time/process scales including phylogenetic, ontogenetic, social diffusion, and synchronic scales. ### Elizabeth Ann Bates - Elizabeth Ann Bates (July 26, 1947 – December 13, 2003) was a professor of cognitive science at the University of California, San Diego. She was an internationally renowned expert and leading researcher in child language acquisition, psycholinguistics, aphasia, and the neurological bases of language, and she authored 10 books and over 200 peer-reviewed articles and book chapters on these subjects. Bates was well known for her assertion that linguistic knowledge is distributed throughout the brain and is subserved by general cognitive and neurological processes. ### Brian James MacWhinney - Brian James MacWhinney (born August 22, 1945) is a Professor of Psychology and Modern Languages at Carnegie Mellon University. He specializes in first and second language acquisition, psycholinguistics, and the neurological bases of language, and he has written and edited several books and over 100 peer-reviewed articles and book chapters on these subjects. MacWhinney is best known for his competition model of language acquisition and for creating the CHILDES (Child Language Data Exchange System) and TalkBank corpora. He has also helped to develop a stream of pioneering software programs for creating and running psychological experiments, including PsyScope, an experimental control system for the Macintosh; E-Prime, an experimental control system for the Microsoft Windows platform; and System for Teaching Experimental Psychology (STEP), a database of scripts for facilitating and improving psychological and linguistic research. ### The Classic Competition Model - The classic version of the model focused on competition during sentence processing, crosslinguistic competition in bilingualism, and the role of competition in language acquisition. ### Sentence Processing - The Competition Model, initially proposed as a theory of cross-linguistic sentence processing, suggests that we interpret sentences by weighing various linguistic clues, such as word order, grammar, and word meanings, to calculate the probability of each possible interpretation. This weighting is learned through experience, based on how often these clues appear and how reliably they guide us to the correct meaning. ### Since different languages use different clues, the model argues that their importance varies across languages, requiring language learners to adjust their understanding of which clues are crucial in each language. - Clues can come from different aspects of language, such as grammar, pronunciation, meaning, or social context, and their usefulness depends on how often they appear and how often they lead to the correct interpretation. The model emphasizes that clues both work together and compete with each other during sentence processing, sometimes reinforcing each other and sometimes creating conflicts that need to be resolved. ### The Unified Competition Model - The classic Competition Model accounts well for many of the basic features of sentence processing and cue learning. It relies on a small set of assumptions regarding cues, validity, reliability, competition, transfer, and strength each of which could be investigated directly. However, the model is limited in several important ways. ### Brain Structure: - The classic model makes no contact with what we now know about the organization of language in the brain. As a result, it provides only incomplete understanding of patterns of language disorder and loss. ### Critical Period: - The classic model fails to come to grips with the idea that there is a biologically-determined critical period for language acquisition. ### Motivation: - The classic model provides no role for social and motivational factors governing language learning, preference, code-switching, and attrition. ### Mental Models: - The classic model fails to include a role for mental model construction during comprehension and formulation during production. ### Microgenesis: - The classic model does not provide a microgenetic account for the course of item acquisition, fluency development, and cue strength learning. ### Extending the classic model to deal with these challenges involves borrowing insights from related theories. The resultant broader theory is called the Unified Competition Model or UCM, because it seeks to unify a variety of independent theoretical frameworks into a single overall model. - The transition from the classic version of the model to the unified version worked to bring the model into fuller accord with the theory of emergentism, as developed in the biological (West-Eberhard, 2003), social (Kontopoulos, 1993) and physical sciences (von Bertalanffy, 1968). ### Language Acquisition - The application of the model to child language acquisition focuses on the role that cue availability and reliability play in determining the order of acquisition of grammatical structures. The basic finding is that children first learn the most available cue(s) in their language. If the most available cue is not also the most reliable, then children slowly shift from depending on the available cue to depending on the more reliable cue. ### Methods - The Competition Model suggests that we can study how language develops in individuals (ontogenetic emergence) in two main ways. One approach uses computer models, specifically neural networks, to simulate how children learn complex grammatical structures. Researchers have built these models to study how children learn different aspects of language, like grammar, vocabulary, and word forms, in languages like English, German, and Hungarian. Another approach focuses on biological factors, examining how children with brain damage in specific areas develop language. Studies using reaction time tests and brain imaging have shown that these children, while able to use language normally, may have slower processing in certain areas. This research helps us understand the critical periods for language development in the brain.