Theories of Language Development PDF

THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT Psychological theories of language learning differ in terms of the importance they place on nature and nurture. We are a product of both nature and nurture. NATIVISM Noam Chomsky is a believer in the nature approach to lan...

THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT Psychological theories of language learning differ in terms of the importance they place on nature and nurture. We are a product of both nature and nurture. NATIVISM Noam Chomsky is a believer in the nature approach to language. He argues that human brains contain a LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE (LAD). The LAD includes a universal grammar that underlies all human language. Children are born with knowledge of general rules of syntax for sentence construction. Language develops with exposure; no teaching, training, or reinforcement is required (contrasts Skinner). DEEP STRUCTURE of an idea - how the idea is represented in the fundamental universal grammar that is common to all languages SURFACE STRUCTURE of the idea - how it is expressed in any one language. After hearing or expressing a thought in surface structure, we generally forget how it happened. At the end of a lecture, we remember deep structure (ideas) but cannot reproduce surface structure (exact words used). There is general agreement among psychologists that babies are genetically programmed to learn language but debate exists about Chomsky’s idea of a universal grammar for all language learning. BRAIN AREAS FOR LANGUAGE For 90% of right-handed people, language is stored and controlled by the left cerebral cortex. For some left-handers, this pattern may be reversed. Neuroimaging studies show that listening to and producing language creates greater activity in the left hemisphere than in the right. BROCA’S AREA - an area in front of the left hemisphere near the motor cortex, is responsible for language production WERNICKE’S AREA - an area of the brain next to the auditory cortex, is responsible for language comprehension Is there a critical period for learning language? CRITICAL PERIOD - a time in which learning can easily occur, for language. Psychologists believe there is a critical period for language learning, occurring between infancy and puberty but isolating the exact timeline has been elusive LEARNING THEORY - Perhaps the most straightforward explanation of language development is that it occurs through the principles of learning, including association and reinforcement Bandura (1977) described the importance of observation and imitation of others in learning language Children learn the language that they hear spoken around them rather than some other language children modify their language through imitation and reinforcement, such as parental praise and being understood SOCIAL PRAGMATICS - Another view emphasizes the very social nature of human language. Language from this view is not only a cognitive skill, but also a social one Language is a tool that humans use to communicate, connect to, influence, and inform others. Most of all, language comes out of a need to cooperate. Example: a child watching her mother search for an object may point to the object to help her mother find it TEMPERAMENT - the innate characteristics of the infant, including mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity, noticeable soon after birth. EASY CHILD (40%) who is able to quickly adapt to routine and new situations, remains calm, is easy to soothe, and usually is in a positive mood. Easy Child: Requires less attention and support. DIFFICULT CHILD (10%) who reacts negatively to new situations, has trouble adapting to routine, is usually negative in mood, and cries frequently. Difficult Child: May need extra time to expend energy. SLOW-TO-WARM-UP CHILD (15%) has a low activity level, adjusts slowly to new situations and is often negative in mood. Slow-to-Warm-Up Child: Needs advance warning for new situations. GOODNESS-OF-FIT - A caregiver's ability to work well and accurately read the child, meaning their styles match and communication and interaction can flow Parents who recognize each child’s temperament and accept it, will nurture more effective interactions with the child and encourage more adaptive functioning. For example, an adventurous child whose parents regularly take her outside on hikes would provide a good “fit” to her temperament. As children mature biologically, temperamental characteristics emerge and change over time. STABILITY OF TEMPERAMENT: Temperament does not change dramatically as we grow up, but we may learn how to work around and manage our temperamental qualities.  Temperament may be one of the things about us that stays the same throughout development. PARENTING IS BIDIRECTIONAL - Not only do parents affect their children, children influence their parents Child characteristics, such as temperament, impact parenting behaviors and roles. PERSONALITY - defined as an individual’s consistent pattern of feeling, thinking, and behaving, is the result of the continuous interplay between biological disposition and experience. made up of many other features besides temperament, including developing self-concept, motivations to achieve or to socialize, values and goals, coping styles, sense of responsibility and conscientiousness, many other qualities influenced by biological dispositions and experiences with others. INFANT EMOTIONS At birth, infants exhibit two emotional responses: Attraction and withdrawal. ATTRACTION: They show attraction to pleasant situations that bring comfort, stimulation, and pleasure. WITHDRAWAL: They withdraw from unpleasant stimulation such as bitter flavors or physical discomfort. At around two months, infants exhibit social engagement through social smiling, responding with smiles to those who engage their positive attention (Lavelli & Fogel, 2005). Social smiling becomes more stable and organized as infants learn to use their smiles to engage their parents in interactions. 3 to 5 Months: Pleasure is expressed as laughter. 6 to 8 Months: Displeasure becomes more specific: Fear, Sadness, or Anger: Anger is often the reaction to being prevented from obtaining a goal, such as a toy being removed Sadness: Typically the response when infants are deprived of a caregiver STRANGER WARINESS -Fear is often associated with the presence of a stranger SEPARATION ANXIETY- the departure of significant others Both appear sometime between 6 and 15 months after object permanence has been acquired EMOTIONS: are often divided into two general categories: BASIC EMOTIONS - such as interest, happiness, anger, fear, surprise, sadness and disgust appear first SELF-CONSCIOUS EMOTIONS - such as envy, pride, shame, guilt, doubt, and embarrassment appear as children start to develop a self-concept and require social instruction on when to feel such emotions. INDIVIDUALISTIC CULTURES - teach us to feel pride in personal accomplishments COLLECTIVE CULTURES - children are taught to not call attention to themselves, unless you wish to feel embarrassed for doing so SOCIAL REFERENCING - the process whereby infants seek out information from others to clarify a situation and then use that information to act refers to strategies we use to control our emotional states so that we can attain goals DEVELOPMENT OF SENSE OF SELF - During the second year of life, children begin to recognize themselves as they gain a sense of self as an object. SELF-AWARENESS - is the realization that you are separate from others Achieving self-awareness is a precursor to understanding complex social emotions, including guilt, shame, embarrassment, sympathy, and empathy. Most infants develop this self-awareness between 15 and 24 months. Children who touched their own noses instead of the "baby" in the mirror demonstrated self-awareness. FORMING ATTACHMENTS ATTACHMENT is the close bond with a caregiver from which the infant derives a sense of security. form the basis for confidence and curiosity as toddlers, and as important influences on self-concept. FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY - According to Freud (1938) infants are oral creatures who obtain pleasure from sucking and mouthing objects. the infant will become attached to a person or object that provides this pleasure. infants were believed to become attached to their mother because she was the one who satisfied their oral needs and provided pleasure. the infants will become attached to their mothers “if the mother is relaxed and generous in her feeding practices, thereby allowing the child a lot of oral pleasure,” HARLOW’S RESEARCH: Psychologists Harry and Margaret Harlow conducted experiments with young monkeys if nursing was the most important factor to attachment Infant monkeys were separated from their biological mothers and presented with two surrogate mothers. The Harlows’ studies confirmed that babies have social as well as physical needs. WIRE MOTHER - A cold, metal structure with a bottle of milk for feeding. TERRY-CLOTH MOTHER - A warm, foam-rubber form covered in a heated blanket, providing no food. contact comfort While infants went to the wire mother for nourishment, they spent significantly more time with the terry-cloth mother, indicating a preference for comfort over food. CONTACT COMFORT. The infant's need for physical closeness and touching believed to be the foundation for attachment BOWLBY’S THEORY:John Bowlby expanded on Harlow's findings, defining attachment as the affectional bond or tie that an infant forms with the mother infant must form this bond with a primary caregiver in order to have normal social and emotional development attachment bond is very powerful and continues throughout life SECURE BASE is a parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety as the child explores the surroundings. A healthy attachment requires two key elements:  1. The caregiver must be responsive to the child’s physical, social, and emotional needs. 2. The caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions Bowlby noted that infants would go to extraordinary lengths to prevent separation from their parents, including crying, refusing to be comforted, and waiting for the caregiver to return. He observed that these negative responses to separation were common among many mammals, arguing that they serve an evolutionary function. Infants who maintained proximity to an attachment figure were more likely to survive and reproduce, as they are dependent on adults for care and protection. MARY AINSWORTH AND THE STRANGE SITUATION TECHNIQUE - developmental psychologist Mary Ainsworth, a student of John Bowlby, studied the development of attachment in infants. THE STRANGE SITUATION TECHNIQUE laboratory test that measured an infant’s attachment to his or her parents. Conducted in a context that is unfamiliar to the child and therefore likely to heighten the child’s need for his or her parent On the basis of their behaviors, the children are categorized into one of four groups where each group reflects a different kind of attachment relationship with the caregiver. One style is secure and the other three styles are referred to as insecure: SECURE ATTACHMENT STYLE - child usually explores freely while the caregiver is present and may engage with the stranger. typically play with the toys and bring one to the caregiver to show and describe from time to time may be upset when the caregiver departs but is also happy to see the caregiver return. AMBIVALENT ATTACHMENT STYLE (RESISTANT) - wary about the situation in general, particularly the stranger, and stays close or even clings to the caregiver rather than exploring the toys. When the caregiver leaves, the child is extremely distressed and is ambivalent when the caregiver returns. may rush to the caregiver, but then fails to be comforted when picked up. may still be angry and even resist attempts to be soothed. AVOIDANT ATTACHMENT STYLE will avoid or ignore the mother, showing little emotion when the mother departs or returns may run away from the mother when she approaches. will not explore very much, regardless of who is there, and the stranger will not be treated much differently from the mother. DISORGANIZED/DISORIENTED ATTACHMENT STYLE have an inconsistent way of coping with the stress of the strange situation. may cry during the separation, but avoid the mother when she returns, or the child may approach the mother but then freeze or fall to the floor. CAREGIVER INTERACTIONS AND THE FORMATION OF ATTACHMENT: SECURELY ATTACHED - consistent contact from one or more caregivers who meet the physical and emotional needs of the child in a responsive and appropriate manner. Can form even in cultures where mothers do not engage in typical bonding behaviors INSECURE AMBIVALENT STYLE -occurs when the parent is insensitive and responds inconsistently to the child’s needs The infant is unsure that the world is trustworthy or that needs can be reliably met. the infant is never sure that the world is a trustworthy place or that he or she can rely on others without some anxiety. a caregiver who is unavailable, perhaps because of marital tension, substance abuse, or preoccupation with work, may send a message to the infant he or she cannot rely on having needs met. infant who receives only sporadic attention when experiencing discomfort may not learn how to calm down Child may cry if separated from the caregiver and also cry upon their return seek constant reassurance that never seems to satisfy their doubt. clingy behavior can also just be part of a child’s natural disposition or temperament and does not necessarily reflect some kind of parental neglect. a caregiver that attends to a child’s frustration can help teach them to be calm and to relax. INSECURE AVOIDANT STYLE is marked by insecurity, but this style is also characterized by a tendency to avoid contact with the caregiver and with others child may have learned that needs typically go unmet and learns that the caregiver does not provide care and cannot be relied upon for comfort, even sporadically learns to be more independent and disengaged. INSECURE DISORGANIZED/DISORIENTED STYLE - the most insecure style of attachment and occurs when the child is given mixed, confused, and inappropriate responses from the caregiver. Child does not learn how to interpret emotions or to connect with the unpredictable caregiver. also often seen in children who have been abused. For example, a mother who suffers from schizophrenia may laugh when a child is hurting or cry when a child exhibits joy. CAREGIVER CONSISTENCY CONSISTENCY ISSUES: May be jeopardized in daycare settings with high staff turnover or in institutional care with minimal interaction. Infants from orphanages with inadequate care may initially struggle with attachments but can form secure attachments years later. These infants may experience emotional problems such as depression, anger, or overly friendly behavior SOCIAL DEPRIVATION - Severe deprivation of parental attachment can lead to serious problems. Children who have not been given warm, nurturing care, they may show developmental delays, failure to thrive, and attachment disorder NON-ORGANIC FAILURE TO THRIVE - is the diagnosis for an infant who does not grow, develop, or gain weight on schedule and there is no known medical explanation for this failure Poverty, neglect, inconsistent parenting, and severe family dysfunction are correlated with this.  Postpartum depression can cause even a well-intentioned mother to neglect her infant. REACTIVE ATTACHMENT DISORDER - those children experiencing neglectful situations and also displaying markedly disturbed and developmentally inappropriate attachment behavior, such as being inhibited and withdrawn, minimal social and emotional responsiveness to others, and limited positive affect. Children who experience social neglect or deprivation, repeatedly change primary caregivers that limit opportunities to form stable attachments or are reared in unusual settings (such as institutions) that limit opportunities to form stable attachments can certainly have difficulty forming attachments often occurs with developmental delays, especially in cognitive and language areas. the majority of severely neglected children do not develop reactive attachment disorder, which occurs in less than 10% of such children RESILIENCY - Being able to overcome challenges and successfully adapt can be attributed to certain personality factors, such as an easy-going temperament. Young children can show strong resiliency even in harsh circumstances. Some children are warm, friendly, and responsive, whereas others tend to be more irritable, less manageable, and difficult to console, and these differences play a role in attachment Receiving support from others also leads to resiliency. positive and strong support group can help a parent and child build a strong foundation by offering assistance and positive attitudes toward the newborn and parent ERIKSON: AUTONOMY VS. SHAME AND DOUBT As the child begins to walk and talk, an interest in independence or autonomy replaces a concern for trust. believed that toddlers should be allowed to explore their environment as freely as safety allows and in so doing will develop a sense of independence that will later grow to self-esteem, initiative, and overall confidence. Overly anxious caregivers may convey messages of shame regarding the child's actions, such anxiety can instill doubt in the child's abilities. Parenting advice based on these ideas would be to keep toddlers safe but let them learn by doing. MEASURING INFANT DEVELOPMENT The Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition (Bayley-III) comprehensively assess children within the age range of 1 to 42 months Children are evaluated in five key developmental domains, including cognition, language, social-emotional, motor, and adaptive behavior Bayley Scales can highlight which early intervention techniques might be most beneficial. Detailed information is even able to be obtained from non-verbal children.