MOTIVATION & EMOTIONS COMBINED SLIDES.pdf

PSYC 222 Motivation and Emotions Session 1 (Part 1 and 2) – Concept of Motivation Lecturer: Mrs. Jennifer Sasu - Mensah, Psychology Department Contact Information: [email protected] College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2015/2016...

PSYC 222 Motivation and Emotions Session 1 (Part 1 and 2) – Concept of Motivation Lecturer: Mrs. Jennifer Sasu - Mensah, Psychology Department Contact Information: [email protected] College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2015/2016 – 2016/2017  Session Overview There is a driving force that compels people to behave in a certain way or choose one thing over the other. What is this force and where does it come from? This session seeks to introduce students to why people do the things they do. At the end of the session, the student will be able to 1. Define and explain the term Motivation. 2. Identify and explain the features of motivation 3. Identify and differentiate between the types of motivation 4. Discuss the factors that influence the activity of motives/drives Slide 2  Session Outline The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows: The Concept of motivation Types of Motives or Drives Theories of motivation Slide 3 Topic One MOTIVATION Slide 4  THE CONCEPT OF MOTIVATION Why do you choose to eat what you do? What grade do you want in this course? Why do people go to the University? Why do people marry? Does being involved in a sexual relationship interest you, or do you not think about it very much? Slide 5  THE CONCEPT OF MOTIVATION Psychologists have always been interested in why people are obliged (motivated) to do anything at all, and if they do something, why that and not something else. They are interested in this topic specifically from two angles, hence Furnhams (2002) assertion that the issue is two fold. Psychologists are interested in: (a)The nature of the driving force – That is, where does whatever is compelling you to do anything or not come from? What are the properties/characteristics of this force? Slide 6  THE CONCEPT OF MOTIVATION (b)The direction and maintenance of the drive :- That is what effects does this drive/force have on individual’s behaviour? Slide 7  Defining Motivation What is Motivation? Etymology of the term: The word motivation is derived from the Latin word `movere' which means to move. Literally it means the reason that is making a person do something. Slide 8  Defining Motivation Motivation is the concept that describes and explains the forces acting on a person that initiate(start), energize( how hard/intense a person engages in an activity), direct (what a person does/goal/what to do) and sustain/maintain(how long a person engages in an activity) behaviour. Slide 9  Defining Motivation A motive (or motivation) can also be said to be a need, want, interest, or desire that propels someone (or an organism) in a certain direction. Various scholars have tried to define motivation Two Classical definitions of motivation. 1) H. W. Bernard (1972) ‘All those phenomena which are involved in the stimulation of action towards particular objectives where previously there was little or no movement towards those goals.’ 2) Good and Biophy (1986) ‘A hypothetical construct that explains the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of goal directed behaviour.’ Slide 10  Defining Motivation Two Contemporary Definitions 1) Gazzaniga, Heatherton and Halpern (2010) ‘The area of psychological science concerned with the factors that energize or stimulate behaviour’ 2)David G. Myers (2013) ‘A need or desire that energizes and directs behaviour’ Slide 11  Defining Motivation Comparing these definitions, 3 things are common to all. 1. What starts the behaviour? The internal (intrinsic) and external forces (extrinsic) that compel the individual to start the behaviour 2. What channels direct it? The goal that one seeks to reach 3. What maintains it? The feedback that either reinforces the intensity of the drive towards the goal or to dissuade one from the course of action. Slide 12  FEATURES OF THE CONCEPT OF MOTIVATION Motivation as a concept has certain specific features (Westwood, 1992). Features of Motivation 1. Motivation is an internal state experienced by the individual. That is, although external factors can affect a person’s motivational state, it develops within the individual and is unique to that individual. Slide 13  FEATURES OF THE CONCEPT OF MOTIVATION 2. The individual experiences a motivational state in a way that gives rise to; - A desire (strong wish to do) - An intention (plans what to do) - Pressure (feeling that one must do ) to act. 3. Motivation has an element of choice, intention or willingness to act. 4. Individuals differ in terms of their motivational state and the factors that affect it. Slide 14  FEATURES OF THE CONCEPT OF MOTIVATION 5. Motivational state of an individual is variable across time and situations. That is, what motivates a person at a certain time might not motivate him or her another time or in different circumstances or situations. Slide 15 Topic Two TYPES OF MOTIVES Slide 16  Types of Motives To initiate a specific kind of behaviour, one must have motives. Motives can be put into the following categories:- Physiological/Biological Motives Motives that are essentially good for the survival of the individual. Food, water, sex? and clothing. Slide 17  Types of Motives  Social Motives  Human beings are social in nature and would like to be accepted by the members of the society.  Social motives include social approval, affection, respect, prestige and money.  Personal Motives  Unique to individuals depending on their personalities.  E.g., interests, values, goals and self-conception. Slide 18  Factors Influencing Activity Of Motives  Whether physiological/biological, social or personal, motives are normally initiated by a number of factors. These factors include the following :- 1. Physiological Factors  An individual will naturally need water to drink and food to eat. The body is naturally wired to need these things at one point or another. 2. Emotions  Emotional states increases one’s desire to achieve certain goals (feelings;- happiness, love, anger- caused by the situation that one is in). Slide 19  Factors Influencing Activity Of Motives 3. Habits  Habits will initiate certain motives within a person. E.g., If one is addicted to a drug, one is always motivated to get it when it is finished. Hence an individual will engage in any kind of behaviour to make this happen. 4. Values and Attitudes of the Individual. Attributes that the individual has inculcated like belief in god/religion, which must be fulfilled at all times can initiate some motives. Environmental Factors Some factors within a person’s environment can initiate motives. E.g., cost of living, availability of food and natural hazards may compel one to make moves towards a motive. Slide 20  How Motives Influence Behaviour  The motives listed above influence behaviour in four main ways:- 1. Energize.  Motives energize and arouse the individual for action.  Eg., desire for fitness 2. Sustain Behaviour.  Motives do not only energize the behaviour of the individual but sustains the interest and behaviour throughout the period of activity to achieve the goal.  Motives will make one persist until a goal is achieved. Slide 21  How Motives Influence Behaviour 3. Direct Behaviour Direct - The individual's motivated behaviour is often guided, directed and goal-oriented. The behaviour of the individual is purposeful and persistent until the goal is achieved. 4. Regulate Behaviour Motives differ in strength That is, a motive determines how intense one will engage in a behaviour and even the priority it is given. These are dependent on internal factors or characteristics Slide 22 Topic Three THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Slide 23  Theories of Motivation In an attempt to understand motivated behaviours, Psychologists have used various perspectives. Four are discussed below: 1. Instincts and/ Evolutionary perspective 2. Drives-reduction theory 3. Optimum Arousal 4. A hierarchy of Motives Slide 24  Instincts and Evolutionary Perspective Instinct – A complex behaviour that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned Inherited, unlearned forces that help all species survive This perspective is therefore of the view that the drive/desire/motives for behaviour is pre programmed or unlearned Eg., Mature salmon will swim to where they were hatched when it is time to die Newly hatched ducks or geese will follow the first moving thing they see Slide 25  Drive-reduction Theory Homeostasis This is an organisms natural tendency to maintain a steady internal state. Drive reduction theory is the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state that drives the organism to reduce the need. This is shown in the diagram above. Now this physiological need which creates an arousal destabilize the steady internal state of the organism, hence the need to engage in a behaviour to reduce the arousal to maintain the balance (homeostasis) According to this theory, we are not only pushed by ‘needs’ to reduce drives but we are also pulled by incentives These are the positive or negative stimuli that lure or repel us In other words, learning histories influence motives Slide 26  Optimum Arousal Human motivation aims not to eliminate arousal but to seek optimum levels of arousal Optimal arousal theory suggests that humans are motivated to maintain a comfortable level of arousal. Therefore, individuals engage in certain actions for the purpose of attaining an optimal level of arousal by either decreasing or increasing the amount and type of stimulation received from the environment. Slide 27  A Hierarchy of Motives People have five types of needs that are activated in a hierarchical manner. They are aroused in a specific order such that a lower-order need must be satisfied before the next higher-order need is activated. Once a need is met, the next highest need in the hierarchy is triggered, and so forth. The 5 needs: Physiological; safety; social (Deficiency Needs); Esteem & self actualization (Growth Needs) Slide 28  A Hierarchy of Motives According to Maslow, deprivation, or lack of satisfaction with respect to a particular need, leads to its dominance and the person’s behavior is entirely devoted to satisfying that need. However, once satisfied or gratified, it will recede in importance and the next highest level will be stimulated or activated. Thus, beginning with the lowest level, the entire process involves deprivation leading to dominance, gratification and activation of the next level. Slide 29 Slide 30  PSYC 222 Motivation and Emotions Session 2 – THE EATING & HUNGER MOTIVATION Lecturer: Mrs. Jennifer Sasu - Mensah, Psychology Department Contact Information: [email protected] College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2015/2016 – 2016/2017 The Eating & Hunger Motivation Slide 2  Session Overview People are motivated (driven towards the need) to at one point or the other in response to the hunger drive. Have you ever wondered why we get hungry? Does the motivation for hunger go beyond simple nourishment? Are there problems associated with eating? This session seeks to help us answer these questions. At the end of this session, it is expected that student will be able to: i. Identify and explain the reasons why we get hungry ii. Differentiate between the factors that influence the hunger drive iii. Identify and discuss the eating disorders iv. Identify and discuss the causes as well as management of the eating disorders. Slide 3  Session Outline The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows: The Biological Basis of Hunger The Psychology of Hunger Eating Problems/Disorders Slide 4 Topic One BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HUNGER Slide 5  INTRODUCTION Hunger is a powerful stimulus that sets us into looking for food. This is exemplified by the sayings of the following authorities: Jeane de la Fontaine--- A hungry man has no ears. Mahatma Gandhi--- Even god can’t speak to a hungry man except in terms of bread Slide 6  HUNGER DRIVE Why do people feel hungry? The motivation for hunger goes beyond simple nourishment There are basically two factors that influence/account for the feeling of hunger. -Biological factors -Psychological factors However, one can not discuss the factors that influence the feelings of hunger without talking about Eating problems/Disorders Slide 7  BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HUNGER Researchers used to believe that the feeling of hunger comes from the stomach Theory test (Refer to lecture slides) They however found that central to the biological feelings of hunger is the brain structure known as the hypothalamus Two areas of the hypothalamus controls hunger -Lateral Hypothalamus -Ventromedial hypothalamus Slide 8  Biological Basis of Hunger Lateral hypothalamus - Stimulation causes you to feel hunger Ventromedial hypothalamus -Stimulation makes one full If the hypothalamus is functioning normally, these two areas oppose each other and signal impulses to eat and to stop eating Slide 9  Biology of Hunger Various theories have been given that explain the biological basis of hunger. In this session, we will discuss four of such theories 1. Glucose theory 2. Insulin theory 3. Heat Production theory 4. Set Point Theory Slide 10  Biology of Hunger Glucose theory  One biological explanation of hunger is that when one’s blood glucose level is low, the person becomes hungry and desires to eat.  After eating the food, the glucose level raises which in turn reduces the hunger drive. Slide 11  Biology of Hunger  As the glucose level diminishes then the hunger sets in and the person has to eat.  Research (Luckhardt & Carlson,1915; Bash,1939)  The glucose level is monitored by the hypothalamus (glucoreceptors). The hunger cycle is demonstrated in a diagram below. Slide 12  Biology of Hunger The Hunger Cycle ↑Glucose ↓Hunger Don’t Eat Eat ↑ Hunger ↓ Glucose Slide 13  Biology of Hunger The Insulin theory of hunger The level of insulin is highly correlated with the level of glucose. This theory says it is the level of insulin that determines one’s hunger level. Hence reduction leads to hunger whereas an increase will lead to feeling of satiation Heat Production theory According this theory, a drop in body and blood temperature, as sensed by the brain cells leads to increased feelings of hunger Slide 14  Biology of Hunger Set Point theory The hypothalamus wants to maintain a certain optimum body weight When we drop below that weight, the hypothalamus tells us we should eat The hypothalamus tells us to stop eating when we reach the set point Slide 15 Topic Two PSYCHOLOGY OF HUNGER Slide 16  Psychology of Hunger  Factors like the smell, taste, and visual clues can also influence eating habits.  The four primary tastes like sweet, sour, salty and bitter are encountered by everyone. Slide 17  Psychology of Hunger  People all over the world prefer the sweet and tasty ones like sugar and tasty food. A persons’ state of mind can also influence the preference for types of foods. For example, stressful events might call for snacks. Slide 18  Psychology of Hunger Ecology of Eating The presence of others can either inhibit or help people to eat. In general, people tend to eat more in the company of others, especially friends or family members. Cultural preferences Learning plays an important role in what we eat. Hence, the culture in which one finds him/herself can influence eating habits (Refer to lecture slides for examples) Slide 19  Psychology of Hunger Some of us eat even though our hypothalamus is not sending us any cues If you are motivated to eat by external cues such as stress, smell or just the fact that food is available then you are an external Those motivated to eat by internal cues like feelings of hunger, empty stomach are internals The points discussed above are considered as the psychological basis of hunger Slide 20 Topic Three EATING PROBLEMS/DISORDERS Slide 21  Eating Problems/Disorders Three main Problems; 1. Obesity 2. Anorexia Nervosa 3. Bulimia Nervosa Slide 22  Obesity Obesity is described as excess of body fat accounting for 25% of weight in a person. As far back as in 2002, the World Health Organization (WHO) described obesity as a global epidemic. Slide 23  Obesity Obesity is measured as BMI (Body Mass Index) = Weight (kg)/Height (m2) The norms for interpreting the values are; < 18.5 = Underweight 18.5-24.9 = Normal 25-29.9 = Overweight 30+ =Obese Slide 24  Obesity Why obesity The disorder is caused mostly by a consumption of calories that are more than what the body needs, therefore the excess is stored as fat. Obesity could be caused by physiological state due to the following factors; Genetic factors The following researches give some support to the genetic basis of hunger Adopted versus natural children; identical versus fraternal twins (Stunkard et al., 1985, 1990;Carriere, 2003; Frayling et al., 2007) Slide 25  Obesity It is also believed that certain individuals inherit the potential to consume a lot of high calorie foods Other Factors Age Slowing of metabolism rate Malfunctions of the hypothalamus Lesions of the ventromedial nuclei of the hypothalamus produce overeating Internal- External theory of hunger and eating Environmental -Those who live sedentary lives -Those who take fast foods. Slide 26  Obesity Psychological Factors Eating in response to negative emotions Illness Hormone problems (hypothyroidism), depression Medications Steroids, antidepressants Slide 27  Problems of obesity Once one is said to have obesity, there are a number of problems which may come along with the disorder Diabetes Heart problems Respiratory problems Cancer High cholesterol Pregnancy complications Slide 28  Management of Obesity Obesity can be managed in the following ways: The person should eat low fatty diet of food The person should exercise on regular basis Psychotherapy Drugs Surgery to remove fat Bypass surgery Slide 29  Anorexia Nervosa This is an eating disorder common in girls or young women. About 95% of those affected are females. In this condition, the person becomes very fearful of gaining weight, ignores eating and becomes emaciated and might even starve to death. Signs/Symptoms Dieting despite being thin Obsession with calories, fat grams, nutrition Feeling fat despite being underweight Compulsive exercising Slide 30  Anorexia Nervosa Causes Biological Causes Neurochemicals Low or high levels of certain neurochemicals can cause this disorder Eg.,Low levels in norepinephrine, a neurochemical for regulation of eating, high levels of cortisol Learned Factors -Families that place emphasis on slenderness -Activities that require slenderness Sociocultural variables Some societies consider being slender as what is acceptable especially for women Slide 31  Anorexia Nervosa Anorexia has a number of problems associated which include: Severe mood swings Lack of energy and weakness Dry yellowish skin, brittle nails Tooth decay, gum damage Reproductive problems Slide 32  Bulimia Nervosa This condition is common in young women It is characterized by binge eating followed by self – induced vomiting or use of laxatives. Such an individual may take ten balls of kenkey or 5 fried chickens all at one sitting and then purge them. This binge -purge episode may occur 2 – 14 times in a week. Frequent vomiting may lead to abdominal problems and dehydration. Slide 33  Bulimia Nervosa Like anorexia nervosa, the condition is attributable to Genetic factors. Cultural and social pressures (Low weight) Other mental health problems (Common in people with Anxiety, OCD, personality disorders) Slide 34  Bulimia Nervosa Problems associated with Bulimia Abdominal problems Bowel problems Dehydration Irregular periods Chemical imbalances leading to tiredness, weakness and kidney damage Poor skin and hair Slide 35 RECAP Slide 36 Slide 37 RECAP Slide 38  PSYC 222 Motivation and Emotions Session 3 – SEXUAL MOTIVES: THE NATURE & SEXUAL PRACTICES Lecturer: Mrs. Jennifer Sasu - Mensah, Psychology Department Contact Information: [email protected] College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2015/2016 – 2016/2017  SEXUAL MOTIVES: THE NATURE & SEXUAL PRACTICES Slide 2  Session Overview Some Scientists are of the view that the motivation for sex is the most important aspect of the human race. According to them, without this drive, human species will die off the surface of the earth. In this session, we will look at why humans are motivated to have sex, the factors that influence arousal as well as some cultural and gender differences in sexuality By the end of this session, you should be able to: i. Identify and explain the reasons why we have sexual motives ii. Identify and discuss the factors that influence our sexual drive iii. Identify and discuss gender and cultural differences in sexuality Slide 3  Session Outline The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows: Sexual Practices Gender Differences in Sexual Practices Cultural Differences in Sexuality Arousal Factors Why Do We have Sex Slide 4 Topic One SEXUAL PRACTICES Slide 5  Sexual Practices Although sex has always been a part of humanity, serious scientific study started in the United States some 76 years ago A study by Alfred Kinsey in the 1940’s carried out in the US about sexual behaviour revealed the following; 90% of all men and about 50% of all women had premarital sex. Nearly all men and majority of women had masturbated. 50% of married men and 26% of married women had extramarital affairs. 40% of college and educated couples had oral sex. Slide 6  Sexual Practices Frequency of Sexual Activities Studies on the frequency of sexual activities have not yet been done in Ghana but American records show that; The overall average is about once a week among married couples. 1/3 of the people surveyed have sex twice a week or more. 1/3 a few times a month 1/3 a few times a year or not at all( Laumann et al 1994). This study is still relevant today. Slide 7  Frequency of Sexual Activities among Married couples 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% Not at all A few time a A few times a 2 or 3 times a 4 or more year month week times a week Slide 8 Topic Two GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SEXUAL PRACTICES Slide 9  Gender Differences in Sexual Practices According to Olives and Hyde (1993) Men and women differ in their sexual motivation. Men are known to have stronger sexual motivation. They arrived on this based on studies Men have more frequent and more intense sexual desires than women as reflected in spontaneous thoughts about sex, frequency and variety of sexual fantasies, desired frequency of sexual intercourse, desired number of partners, frequency of masturbation, liking for various sexual practices, willingness to forgo sex, initiating versus refusing sex, and making sacrifices for sex. Slide 10  Gender Differences in Sexual Practices Men would prefer to have sex with anyone they choose than women. This implies that men are sexually more permissive and promiscuous than women and that men desire more sex than women Slide 11  Gender Differences in Sexual Practices Why are there these differences??? Reasons for the difference in the Sexual Practices among Men and Women Evolution Principle Explanation Human beings use mate selection patterns that favour the conception, birth and survival of their offspring. In view of this, women are highly selective because they must look for a mate who possesses economic resources and willing to use the resources for their offspring. Slide 12  Reasons for the Gender Difference in Sexual Practices (Cont.) In contrast, the man would desire a woman who is young and physically attractive which are attributes that signal good health and reproductive fertility. To also minimize paternal uncertainty, they should also look for women who are likely to be sexually faithful rather than promiscuous. Hence women seek older men who are more likely to have financial resources and men seek younger women who are most likely to be faithful and fertile. Slide 13  Reasons for the Gender Difference in Sexual Practices (Cont.) Other reasons that have been given as accounting for these gender differences are as follows: Androgens (e.g., testosterone) Although both sexes have natural supplies of testosterone in the blood, on average men’s blood testosterone levels are 1000 nanograms per deciliter, while women’s are only one-seventh or one-eighth of this amount, hence the difference in sexuality Slide 14  Reasons for the Gender Difference in Sexual Practices (Cont.) The difference in size between the penis and the clitoris has also been said to be a likely reason that sexual arousal is much more apparent to a man than to a woman. Some researchers have also suggested that, the possibility of cultural influence on the gender difference must also be acknowledged. Clearly, social influence has been significant in suppressing female sexuality. Slide 15 Topic Three CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN SEXUALITY Slide 16  Cultural Differences in Sexuality There appears to also be some differences when it comes to various cultures on the issue of sexuality Ghana A carefully implemented study conducted by a women's research group showed that Ghanaian women especially those above post-menopausal ages have little to no interest for sex. The study showed an alarming trend That Ghanaian women after having an average of two to four children or after 40 years, become less and less interested in sex. Some, the study suggested completely switch off their libidos, and show little to no interest in sexual pleasures. Slide 17  Cultural Differences in Sexuality Generally, Ghanaians are less expressive about sex and sexuality Study by Asampong et al., Another study by Asampong and his colleagues also indicated that there are significant barriers to parents – adolescents sexual communication Slide 18  Cultural Differences in Sexuality Inis Beag People from this community are among the most naive and sexually repressive societies in the world. The islanders abhor nudity. It is believed that adults wash only the parts of the body that extend beyond their clothing. Even marital partners keep underclothes on during sexual activity. Premarital sex is essentially unknown, as is female orgasm. The husband invariably initiates sex, foreplay is limited to kissing and rough fondling of the buttocks, and the male-on-top position is the only position used. The male has orgasm quickly and immediately falls asleep. Slide 19  Cultural Differences in Sexuality Men believe that intercourse is hard on their health and will not engage in sex the night before an energy- demanding task. Sex education is virtually nonexistent. Parents merely trust that, after marriage, nature will take its course Slide 20  Cultural Differences in Sexuality Mehinaku The culture of this community is highly eroticized, and there is an openness with children about sexual matters. For example, children typically know the names of their parents’ many extramarital lovers. Men openly compete with each other for women’s sexual favors, often by bringing small gifts such as fish. At the same time, however, there is a high degree of gender segregation. If a woman enters a “man’s” house and views what is forbidden, she may be taken to the woods and gang-raped. Women are believed to have a much lower sex drive, there seems to be little recognition of female orgasm, and menstruation is understood to be dangerous. Slide 21  Cultural Differences in Sexuality Mangaia (Cook Islands) Pacific Ocean The Mangaian boy hears of masturbation at about 7 and begins the practice at age 8 or 9. At age 13, he undergoes the super- incision ritual (a slit is made on the top of the penis, along its entire length) and the expert who performs the surgery gives him explicit sexual instruction. About two weeks after the operation, the boy has intercourse with an experienced woman who provides him with practice in various acts and positions. She specifically trains him in restraint so that he can have simultaneous orgasms with his partner. The young girl receives similar expert instruction and will typically have three or four successive boyfriends between the ages of 13 and 20. Slide 22  Cultural Differences in Sexuality Mangaian parents encourage their daughters to have sexual experiences with several men so that they can find a marriage partner who is congenial. Boys aggressively seek out girls, typically having coitus every night. The average boy may have 10 or more girlfriends before marriage. At around age 18, the Mangaians typically have sex most nights of the week with about three orgasms per night. All women apparently learn to experience orgasm. Bringing his partner to orgasm is one of the man’s primary sources of pleasure. Slide 23  Some Shocking Sexual Traditions around the world The semen – drinking tribe (Papua, New Guinea) The Trobrianders (6-8 for girls, 10 – 12 for boys) A community where brothers share a wife (Himalayas) The tribe where men steal each other’s wives (Wodaabe tribe, Niger) Slide 24 Topic Four FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE AROUSAL Slide 25  Arousal Factors According to Masters and Johnson (1966), the human sexual behaviour occurs in two major stages: Non-tactile Stage Tactile Stage Factors that influence sexual arousal can be categorized under the following: Slide 26  Factors that influence Sexual Arousal Sexual hormones – These include estrogen and testosterone which combine with the hypothalamus to help the body to function well during sex. Men who are castrated lose their sexual drive. External stimuli – External stimuli can trigger sexual arousal in both sexes. These include the dressing and the appearance of the other person and other erotic stimuli like perfumes. Imagined Stimuli-The mind is said to be the most significant sex organ and most people fantasize about sex in order to have sexual arousal. Slide 27  Factors that influence Sexual Arousal Sexual orientation This refers to one’s degree of emotional and erotic attraction to members of the same gender or opposite gender. They are basically two forms of sexual orientations Heterosexuals are romantically and erotically attracted to members of the opposite gender, for example, a man getting attracted to a female or vice versa. Slide 28  Factors that influence Sexual Arousal Homosexuals are attracted to persons of same gender. For example, a male is attracted to a male, normally called gay and a female attracted to a female, normally called a lesbian. Bisexual This is often rare but a type of sexuality where the individual is attracted to people same and opposite gender Slide 29  What determines ones’ sexual orientation According to Marmor (1985), a combination of the following factors determine one’s sexual orientation: Hereditary (Genetic) There appears to be some evidence that people inherit the predisposition to have a certain sexual orientation. Bailey and Pillard’s (1991) identical twin study supports this Biological The size of certain parts of the brain (eg., neurons in the hypothalamus) have been implicated as determining a person’s sexual orientation. Homosexuals believed to have half the size of what is present in heterosexuals or sometimes completely absent (LeVay, 1991) Slide 30 What determines ones’ sexual orientation It is also believed that, the nerves connecting the two hemispheres of the brain is larger in homosexuals (Allen & Gorski,1991) Learning Learning has been suggested to contribute to a person’s sexual orientation. If one has certain experiences, eg., rape, it might make them fearful of one gender and attracted to the other. The environment in which one grows can also have an influence Slide 31 What determines ones’ sexual orientation Culture Although culture does not directly determine a person’s sexual orientation, the culture can either allow the expression of a certain type of sexual orientation or not Slide 32  What determines one’s sexual orientation? Why homosexuals are considered normal (Seligman, 1994) 1. Personality test of homosexuals and heterosexuals show no differences in their personalities. 2. Sexual orientation is not related to one’s ability to function in society and work constructively. 3. Homosexuals can stop their sexual orientation at will whereas those who are abnormal cannot give up their habits at will and would therefore need therapy to give up their unwanted behaviours. Slide 33  What Determines Ones’ Sexual Orientation? In view of this, the APA recognized that homosexuality is not a form of mental disorder and discontinued the classification of it as disorder in the 1970s. There are scales to measure one’s sexual orientation Kinsey scale Klein Sexual Orientation Grid The Sell Assessment of Sexual Orientation Slide 34  What is Sexually Arousing to Humans There appears to be a learned component when it comes to what is sexually arousing Humans are believed to have sexual scripts which to a greater extent determines what is arousing for them Sexual scripts refer to one’s mental representation or schemata of how an interpersonal sexual episode should be enacted (Gagnon, 1974, 1977; Simon & Gagnon, 1986) Sexual scripts arise from beliefs and attitudes due to the following -Information children are exposed to -Rewards and punishment received -Imitation and modeling Slide 35 Topic Five WHY DO WE HAVE SEX Slide 36  Why do we have sex? Humans are believed to have sex because: We are programmed to do so Our brains are designed to motivate us toward that behavior for survival In addition, people’s motivations generally fall into four main categories, according to Meston and Buss (2007) Physical reasons: Stress Reduction (“I was frustrated and needed relief.”) Pleasure (“It feels good.”) Physical Desirability (“The person had an attractive body.”) Experience Seeking (“I was curious about sex.”) Slide 37  Why do we have sex? Goal-based reasons Goal Attainment To make a baby, Resources (“I wanted to get a job.”) Social Status (“I wanted to be popular.”) Revenge (“I wanted to get back at my partner for having cheated on me.”) Utilitarian (“I thought it would help me fall asleep.”) Emotional reasons: Love, commitment, or gratitude Love and Commitment (“I wanted to feel connected to the person.”) Expression (“I wanted to welcome someone home.”) Slide 38  Why do we have sex? Insecurity reasons Self-Esteem Boost (“I wanted to feel powerful.”) Duty/Pressure (“I felt like I owed it to the person.”) Mate Guarding (“I wanted to keep my partner from straying.”) Generally speaking, men seek sex because they like how it feels. Women, although they very well may also derive pleasure from the act, are generally more interested in the relationship enhancement that sex offers. Researchers describe these differences as body-centered versus person-centered sex. Slide 39  Reasons why people have sex Boosting mood and relieving depression Duty Enhancement of power Enhancement of self-concept Experiencing the power of one’s partner Feeling loved by your partner Fostering jealousy Improving reputation or social status Making money Making babies Slide 40  Reasons why people have sex Need for affection Nurturance Partner novelty Peer pressure or pressure from partner Pleasure Reducing sex drive Revenge Sexual curiosity Showing love to your partner Spiritual transcendence Slide 41  Predictors of Sexual Restraint High Intelligence Teen with high rather than average intelligence often delay sex (Halpern et al., 2000) Religious engagement Actively religious teens and adults more often reserve sex for marital commitment (Rostosky et al., 2004) Father Presence Father absence has been linked to sexual activity before age 16 and teen pregnancy Participation in service learning programs Slide 42 RECAP Slide 43  PSYC 222 Motivation and Emotions Session 4 – SOCIAL MOTIVES Lecturer: Mrs. Jennifer Sasu - Mensah, Psychology Department Contact Information: [email protected] College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2015/2016 – 2016/2017 Topic 4: Social Motives Slide 2  Session Overview What are the thoughts and ambitions that drive people to accomplish certain goals while they avoid certain outcomes? In this session, we will try to answer this question. At the end of the session, students are expected to be able to: i. Identify and explain social motives. ii. Identify and differentiate between the types of social needs. iii. Identify and explain the esteem needs iv. Discuss the various sources of motivation Slide 3  Session Outline The specific topics to be covered in this session include: Social Motives Esteem Motives Sources of Motivation Need Theories Slide 4 Topic One SOCIAL MOTIVES Slide 5  Social Motives We are what Aristotle called “social animals” According to him, without friends, no one would choose to live though he had all other goods Social motives are otherwise known as acquired or learned motives. They result mainly from man’s interaction with his social environment This is the only motive that is unique to humans Slide 6  Social Motives Separated from friends or family, isolated in prison, alone in a new school, living in a foreign land, most people feel the lost of connection We all have a need to belong It colours our thoughts and emotions Slide 7  Social motives When you ask people to talk about their most satisfying moments and even their worst moments, it always has to do with other people Sheldon et al., (2001) carried out a study to find out about people’s most satisfying moment Top two contributors were Satisfaction of self esteem Relatedness – Being able to satisfy belonging needs Another study by Diener and Seligman (2002) found that Happy university students were those who had rich and satisfying close relationships Slide 8  Need for Affiliation According to Dan McAdams(1989), Abraham Maslow’s belongingness motive is in two parts Need for affiliation Need for intimacy Sometimes we find people trying desperately to get close to others, to seek their help or to become members of their group This type of behaviour, seeking other people, wanting to be close both physically and psychologically is called affiliation Slide 9  Need for Affiliation This desire to establish and maintain social contacts or need to be with others can be expressed in terms of the following Visiting friends Sending emails Phone calls Attending social activities People are motivated to establish and maintain an optimal balance of social contacts (not too much or too little) Slide 10  Need for Affiliation People affiliate because they get Energy Attention Information Emotional support. One condition that increases our need for affiliation is stress. Eg., neighbours who do not socialize, gather around during stressful events like fire outbreak or accidents. Slide 11  Factors Influencing Affiliation Needs Early learning experiences First born or only child Family structure - Close family/loosely knit Culture – Indian society strongly affiliating in nature than many western societies. *Please refer to lecture slides for detailed explanation Slide 12  Need for Intimacy Apart from the superficial affiliation, people always have the need for close and intimate relationships. Researches show that those who score higher on intimacy scales are seen by their peers as warm, sincere and loving. They smile more, laugh more and confide more in others. People who score higher on intimacy scale tend to be happier and healthier.(McAdams 1989). Slide 13 Topic Two ESTEEM MOTIVES Slide 14  Esteem Motives This is a motive to succeed, excel and advance in one’s work. This is a need for achievement. Need to be respected This is a strong desire to accomplish difficult task, outperform others and excel. Need to be recognised According to McClelland et al. (1989), this motive is viewed in our fantasies Slide 15  Esteem Motives - Achievement What you achieve depends on the goals you set for yourself and the reasons you pursue them (Locke & Latham, 2002). The goals have three characteristics: The goal must be specific , that is you need to be specific about what you want to do. I will get an A in this exam. The goal should be challenging but achievable such that you feel gratified if the goal is achieved. Slide 16  Esteem Motives The goal should be framed in terms of getting what you want rather than avoiding what you don’t want. For example, approach goals are positive experiences that one seeks directly, for example, I will get an A in an exam. Avoidance goals are efforts to avoid unpleasant experiences, for example, I will not get an F in an exam. In addition, A goal should be time bound It should be measurable Slide 17  Think, Pair, Share What goal have you set for yourself recently? Did you follow effective goal setting principles? How can you improve your personal goal setting practices? How does goal setting affect your motivation as a student and personally? Slide 18  Esteem Motives - Achievement Assessing Achievement A measure of the extent to which one has achieved McClelland used the Fantasy Measure of Achievement Instrument in which an ambiguous picture is given to someone to make up stories about it. If the person’s explanation is that the person in the picture is happy because he or she has passed an exam then such a person is a high achiever. Examples of achievement test: WRAT, SSCE exam Slide 19 Topic Three SOURCES OF MOTIVATION Slide 20  Sources of Motivation Two main sources of motivation Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation 1.Intrinsic motivation "Intrinsic motivation occurs when we act without any obvious external rewards. We simply enjoy an activity or see it as an opportunity to explore, learn, and actualize our potentials." (Coon & Mitterer, 2010) Slide 21  Sources of Motivation Concerned with factors within a person that influence him or her to work. Examples Participating in a sport because you find the activity enjoyable Solving a word puzzle because you find the challenge fun and interesting Playing a game because you find it exciting Slide 22  Sources of Motivation Intrinsic motivation does not mean, however, that a person will not seek rewards. It just means that such external rewards are not enough to keep a person motivated. An intrinsically motivated student, for example, may want to get a good grade on an assignment, but if the assignment does not interest that student, the possibility of a good grade is not enough to maintain that student's motivation to put any effort into the project. Slide 23 Sources of Work Motivation - Intrinsic Interesting, stimulating and challenging work that enables a person to use and develop his or her skills and abilities Opportunity for advancement and Sense of accomplishment and achievement from the job Participation in organizational decision making that affect employees Slide 24  Sources of Motivation Factors that influence intrinsic motivation Challenge: People are more motivated when they pursue goals that have personal meaning, that relate to their self-esteem, when performance feedback is available, and when attaining the goal is possible but not necessarily certain. Control: People want control over themselves and their environments and want to determine what they pursue. Slide 25  Sources of Motivation Curiosity: Internal motivation is increased when something in the physical environment grabs the individual's attention (sensory curiosity) and when something about the activity stimulates the person to want to learn more (cognitive curiosity). Recognition: People enjoy having their accomplishment recognized by others, which can increase internal motivation. Cooperation and Competition: Intrinsic motivation can be increased in situations where people gain satisfaction from helping others and also in cases where they are able to compare their own performance favorably to that of others. Slide 26  Sources of Motivation(extrinsic) Extrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation refers to our tendency to perform activities for known external rewards, whether they be tangible (e.g., money) or psychological (e.g., praise) in nature." (Brown, 2007) Slide 27  Extrinsic Motivation Engaging in an activity in order to earn a reward or to avoid a punishment Examples Studying because you want to get a good grade Participating in a sport in order to win awards Competing in a contest in order to win a scholarship Slide 28  Sources of Work Motivation (Cont.) - Extrinsic Working conditions and overall remuneration package such as pay, bonuses, retirement/pension benefits, other incentives and benefits. Punishments such as disciplinary action, withholding pay, suspension from work and criticism. Slide 29  Extrinsic Motivation While offering rewards can increase motivation in some cases, researchers have also found that this is not always the case. In fact, offering excessive rewards can actually lead to a decrease in intrinsic motivation The tendency of extrinsic motivation to interfere with intrinsic motivation is known as the overjustification effect. A possible reason is that activities that initially feel like play or fun can be transformed into work or obligations when tied to an external reward. Slide 30  Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation Most people suggest that intrinsic motivation is the best. Researchers have arrived at some major conclusions with regards to extrinsic motivation and its influence on intrinsic motivation: 1. Praise can help increase internal motivation 2. Intrinsic motivation will decrease when external rewards are given for completing a specific task or only doing minimal work Slide 31 Topic Four NEED THEORIES Slide 32  Need Theories Need theories are based on the simple idea that behaviours (work-related) are directed to satisfying certain needs. In other words motivation stems from an individual’s desire to fulfill or achieve a need Maslow’s theory is the most popular and important of the need theories. Slide 33  Maslow’s Theory KEY IDEA OF THE THEORY: People have five types of needs that are activated in a hierarchical manner. They are aroused in a specific order such that a lower-order need must be satisfied before the next higher-order need is activated. Once a need is met, the next highest need in the hierarchy is triggered, and so forth. The 5 needs: physiological; safety; social (Deficiency Needs); esteem; & self actualization (Growth Needs) Slide 34  Maslow - Physiological Needs The physiological needs are the lowest-order and most basic needs It refers to satisfying fundamental biological drives such as the need for food, air, water and shelter. People work in order to be able to meet these needs Eg., to satisfy these basic needs, organizations may provide snack, tea, food items. However, many organizations in Third World developing countries might find their employees struggling to satisfy these more basic needs, simply because of the relative poverty of the country. Slide 35  Safety Needs Safety needs are activated only after physiological needs are met. It refers to need for a secure, habitable, non-threatening environment, free from threats of either physical or psychological harm (To feel safe and secure). To ensure that basic physiological needs will remain met E.g., Shelter or housing Physical ability to defend one’s self Regular routine one is comfortable with Slide 36  Safety Needs Organizations may provide employees with life and health insurance plans, opportunity for savings, pensions, safety equipment and secure contracts that enable work to be performed without fear of harm. Similarly, jobs that provide life-long tenure and no- lay-off agreements enhance psychological security(Furnham, 1992). Slide 37  Social Need Social needs are activated after both physiological and safety needs. They refer to the need to be affiliative – to have friends, to be liked, included and accepted by other people. Friends, relations and work colleagues help meet social needs. Organizations may encourage participations in social events such as office parties, sports days, competitions which provide an opportunity for meeting these needs. Slide 38  Esteem Needs Esteem needs go beyond just having social relationships; the individual must feel that at work or at home, he/she is making a contribution Refers to a person’s desire to develop self-respect and to gain the approval of others. The desires to achieve success, have personal prestige and be recognized by others all fall into this category. Slide 39  Esteem Needs Companies may have awards, prizes or banquets to recognize distinguished achievements. Identifying, recognizing and rewarding “employee of the month” or “Employee of the Year” are all examples of things that can be done to satisfy esteem needs. Slide 40  Self-actualization Self actualization needs refer to the need for self- fulfillment – the desire to become all that one is capable of being, developing one’s potential and fully realizing one’s abilities. According to Maslow, this is innate to all human beings. It is not learned through conditioning or earned through rewards (Hall, 2007). Slide 41  Self-actualization Individuals who have become self –actualized supposedly work at their peak, and represent the most effective use of an organization’s human resources. Employees who are self-actualized can be extremely valuable assets to their organizations. The definition of self-actualization is by no means clear, hence it becomes very difficult to operationalize, measure and test(Furnham,1992). Slide 42  Deficiency Needs Taken together, the first three needs – physiological, safety and social needs – are known as deficiency needs. Maslow believed that , without having these met, an individual will fail to develop into a healthy person, both physically and psychologically. Slide 43  Growth Needs The next two higher-order needs (Esteem & Self actualization needs) are known as growth needs. Their gratification is said to help people grow and develop to their fullest potential. Slide 44  Dynamic Forces of Behaviour According to Maslow, deprivation, or lack of satisfaction with respect to a particular need, leads to its dominance and the person’s behavior is entirely devoted to satisfying that need. However, once satisfied or gratified, it will recede in importance and the next highest level will be stimulated or activated. Thus, beginning with the lowest level, the entire process involves deprivation leading to dominance, gratification and activation of the next level. Slide 45  Dynamic Forces of Behaviour Maslow provided key points to his theory (Westwood 1992:293): 1.The deficit principle - If a need is not satisfied, it generates tension and a drive to act. A satisfied need does not motivate. 2.The prepotency principle- Note that the needs are arranged in hierarchy. Some needs are more important and vital than others and need to be satisfied before others can serve as motivators. Slide 46  Dynamic Forces of Behaviour 3.The Satisfaction-progression principle The prepotency of needs follows up the hierarchy. That is, physiological needs must be met first, followed by safety needs, then by social needs and so on. 4. The need structure is open-ended The topmost need, self-actualization, implies striving to attain one’s perceived potential. But as we grow and develop, our conception of our potential also shifts Slide 47  Dynamic Forces of Behaviour Researchers find SA unattainable Researchers have indicated that SA is elastic; shifting as one nears their SA So full self-actualization remains a potential, something to continue to strive for but which is never fully attained. This is a necessary mechanism, otherwise people may satisfy all their needs and no longer be motivated to act. Slide 48  Revised Hierarchy It is believed that Maslow later modified his hierarchy of needs to move one stage and include 3 new stages 5th Stage- Cognitive Needs The need for knowledge and meaning 6th Stage- Aesthetic Needs The appreciation of beauty, form and balance 7th Stage- Self actualization 8th Stage- Transcendence Needs The need to help others become self- actualized (McLeod, 2007) Slide 49 RECAP Slide 50  PSYC 222 Motivation and Emotions Session 6 – The Concept of Emotion Lecturer: Dr. Annabella Osei-Tutu, Psychology Department Contact Information: [email protected] College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2015/2016 – 2016/2017  Session Overview Human beings are emotional beings. We communicate through verbal and non-verbal expressions of emotions. Whereas some people are very good at detecting other people’s emotions, others have a difficulty detecting emotions. This session helps you to define emotion, and know the three components of emotion. You will also learn how to detect various facial expressions. Slide 2  Session Outline The key topics to be covered in the session are: Topic One : Defining Emotion Topic Two : Detecting Emotion Topic Three: The Effects of Facial Expressions Slide 3 Topic One DEFINING EMOTION Slide 4  What is an Emotion? Emotions are a part of our social reality We go through a wide range of emotions throughout the day What is Emotion?  What is an Emotion? Emotions are psychological responses of the whole organism involving an interplay among physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience (Myers, 2010)  What is an Emotion? Emotion elicitors: In order to experience an emotion, certain internal or external stimulus must trigger the process for emotions to occur.  What is an Emotion? Internal elicitors may include changes in your physiological states (e.g., hunger) and cognitive processes (a pleasant thought) External elicitors include noise, death of a loved one, etc.  What is an Emotion? Is emotion the same as feeling or mood? Although the terms are related, they do not mean the same thing  What is an Emotion? A feeling is our subjective experience of an emotional reaction Feelings represent our private emotional experience  What is an Emotion? A mood is the mildest form of an emotion It is a low-intensity, long-lasting emotional state. A moods can last for many hours, or even days Topic Two COMPONENTS OF EMOTION Slide 12 Components of Emotion (Myers, 2010)  Components of Emotion: Physiological Arousal 1. Physiology The physiological aspects of emotions are innate, or built into the body. Emotions results in neural, hormonal, visceral, and muscular changes.  Components of Emotion: Physiological Arousal During an emotional experience, our autonomic nervous system mobilizes energy in the body that arouses us. This results in change in heartbeat, dilation of the pupil… Components of Emotion: Physiological Arousal (Myers, 2010)  Components of Emotion: Physiological Arousal The physiological changes associated with emotional arousal are consistent across cultures. These reactions are nearly universal because they are controlled by the autonomic nervous system. Components of Emotion: Cognition 2. Cognition What is the connection between how we think (cognition) and how we feel (emotion)? The cognition component of emotion is related to the evaluations or appraisals we associate with an emotional arousal  Components of Emotion: Cognition The cognitive processes include our interpretations, memories, and expectations. During an emotional arousal, sensory information goes through the amygdala or through the cortex for analysis. Components of Emotion: Expression 3. Expression The third component of emotion is expression. It includes verbal and non-verbal expressions Emotional expressions are outward signs of what a person is feeling  Components of Emotion: Expression Emotional expressions are typically observable; e.g., changes in face, voice, body, and activity level (Lewis, 2008) Emotional expressions are important because they communicate emotion from one person to another. Components of Emotion: Expression Can you tell what emotions others are feeling, showing, or expressing? Components of Emotion: Expression Emotions are expressed on the face, by the body, and by the intonation of voice. Is this nonverbal language of emotion universal? Slide 23  Components of Emotion: Expression The most basic emotional expressions appear to be fairly universal. For example, smile is the most universal and easily recognized facial expression of emotion.  Components of Emotion: Expression Children’s facial gestures such as joy, sadness, disgust appear to be natural. However, many adult facial expressions are influenced by learning. Some facial expressions are unique to certain cultures. Topic Two DETECTING EMOTIONS IN OTHERS Slide 26  Detecting Emotions in Others  People read a great deal of emotional content in the eyes and the faces.  We are good at quickly detecting negative emotions, and even negative emotion words.  Those who have been abused are more sensitive toward seeing fearful faces as angry. 27 Detecting Emotions in Others: Gender  Women seem to have greater and more complex emotional expression.  Women are also more skilled at detecting emotions in others.  Note that the above statements are overgeneralized.  People tend to attribute women’s emotionality to their dispositions, and attribute men’s emotions to their circumstances. 28  Detecting Emotions Others: Gender We also see some emotions as being more “male” Example anger is often seen as a “manly” emotion 29  Detecting Emotions Others: Context  The context influences our detection of emotion (Barrett, 2012)  The context includes the physical environment as well as the gestures  E.g., What emotion is this person on the right experiencing? Detecting Emotions in Others: Context Now with the context, you can fully appreciate what emotion is being expressed. The picture shows Serena Williams feeling ecstatic after she beats her sister, Venus Williams, in the 2008 U.S. Open tennis finals (Barrett, 2012) Detecting Emotions in Others: Cultures Are there universally recognized emotions? Would you be able to detect emotions of people of other countries, cultures, or groups? (Myers 2010) 32 Detecting Emotions in Others: Cultures  Some facial expressions are universally understood o People of various cultures agree on the emotional labels for the expressions Fear, Anger, Disgust, Sadness, Surprise, Happiness  People in other studies have more accuracy judging emotions from their own culture. Topic Three EFFECTS OF FACIAL EXPRESSIONS Slide 34  Effects of Facial Expressions Emotional facial expression allows us to communicate emotional feelings with others; Others can use this information as an indicator of the way to act in uncertain or ambiguous situations.  Effects of Facial Expressions Do our facial expressions influence our feelings? Slide 36  Effects of Facial Expressions Researchers have observed that therapists tend to “catch” their client’s feelings; parents (non-verbally; and unintentionally) communicate their feelings to their children, and vice versa; and friends resonate to each other’s moods. This is known as Emotional Contagion! Slide 37  Reading List Lewis, M. (2008). The emergence of emotions. In, Lewis, M., & Harviland-Jones, J. M., & Barrett, L. F. (Eds.) (2008). Hand book of emotions (3rd Ed). New York: The Guilford Press. Slide 38  References Myers, D. (2010). Psychology: Ninth edition in modules. New York: Worth Publishers. Lewis, M. (2008). The emergence of emotions. In, Lewis, M., & Harviland-Jones, J. M., & Barrett, L. F. (Eds.) (2008). Handbook of emotions (3rd Ed). New York: The Guilford Press. Barrett, L. F. (2012). Emotions are real. Emotion, 12, 413-429. Slide 39  PSYC 222 Motivation and Emotions Session 7 – Theories of Emotion Lecturer: Dr. Annabella Osei-Tutu, Psychology Department Contact Information: [email protected] College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2015/2016 – 2016/2017  Session Overview Do we smile because we are happy or are we happy because we smile? Research shows that if you stretch your facial muscles to depict a smiley face, you will feel happy. It is also true that if you are happy, you smile. Hence, the question helps us to think about the sequent of emotion; that is, whether the physiological response precedes the conscious experience of an emotion. The session will introduce you to three theories of emotion. Slide 2  Session Outline The key topics to be covered in the session are: Topic One: The Chicken and Egg Controversy Topic Two: James-Lange Theory of Emotion Topic Three: The Cannon-Bard Theory Topic Four: Two-Factor Theory of Emotion Slide 3 Topic One A CONTROVERSY Slide 4  A Controversy In order to experience emotion, you have to be triggered either by an internal or external elicitor. Once triggered, a cascading number of processes are set in motion to result in the experience of emotion. Slide 5  A controversy We know that three components form emotion: – Physiology – Cognition – Expression Which of these components set the pattern of emotional arousal in motion? A Controversy (Myers, 2010)  A controversy 1) Does your emotional expression precede physiological arousal? 2) Does physiological arousal precede your emotional experience? 3) Does thinking precede feeling?  A Controversy From a common sense view, we may say that conscious awareness of our emotions comes first, then physiological arousal follows. Emotion Event Feeling Physiological arousal You become happy first, then your heart starts beating faster. Topic Two JAMES-LANGE THEORY Slide 10  James-Lange Theory William James and Carl Lange proposed a theory of emotion that was opposite to the common- sense view of emotion.  James-Lange Theory The James-Lange Theory proposes that physiological activity precedes the emotional experience. Emotion Physiological Feeling Event Arousal  James-Lange Theory The James-Lange Theory indicates that we do not feel an emotion until after visceral bodily changes; After physiological arousal occurs in response to an event, you can feel your pounding heart, rapid breathing ; this is what makes up the experience of emotion. Our brains interpret visceral changes as emotional experience. Topic Three CANNON-BARD THEORY Slide 14 Cannon-Bard Theory Walter Cannon and Phillip Bard questioned the James- Lange Theory and proposed that an emotion-triggering stimulus and the body's arousal take place simultaneously.  Cannon-Bard Theory Cannon and Bard proposed that conscious awareness of an emotion and physiological arousal occur at the same time to produce our emotions. Emotion Event Physiological Feeling Arousal  Cannon-Bard Theory Both the perception of emotion and physiological arousal are organized in the brain. The Cannon-Bard Theory highlights the key role played by the thalamus, the cortex, and the hypothalamus in arousing the body during an emotional arousal.  Cannon-Bard Theory After an emotion-inducing stimulus is perceived, the thalamus sends a signal to the autonomic nervous system, which produces a visceral response. At the same time, the thalamus communicates a message to the cerebral cortex regarding the nature of the emotion being experienced. E.g., When you see a dangerous-looking bear, physiological arousal and feeling of fear are all generated simultaneously by brain activity. Topic Four TWO-FACTOR THEORY Slide 19 Two-Factor Theory Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed yet another theory which suggests our physiology and cognitions create emotions. According to their theory, emotions have two factors–physical arousal and cognitive label.  Two-Factor Theory Emotion Event Physiological Cognitive Arousal Label Conscious Awareness of Emotion  Two-Factor Theory The Two-Factor Theory suggests that emotional experiences are a joint function of physiological arousal and the labelling of that arousal. The interpretation we give to the immediate physiological arousal determines the emotion we will feel. When the source of physiological arousal is unclear, we may look to our surrounding to determine just what it is we are experiencing.  Reading List Myers, D. (2010). Psychology: Ninth edition in modules. New York: Worth Publishers. Slide 23  References Myers, D. (2010). Psychology: Ninth edition in modules. New York: Worth Publishers. Slide 24  PSYC 222 Motivation and Emotions Session 8– Dimensions of Emotion Lecturer: Dr. Annabella Osei-Tutu, Psychology Department Contact Information: [email protected] College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2015/2016 – 2016/2017  Session Overview How many types of emotion do we have? Which emotions would you want to experience and which ones do you want to avoid? What role do negative emotions serve in human experience? Humans experience a wide range of emotions from different sources. The session will expose you to some of the basic emotions and their dimensions. Before reading the slides, why don’t you generate a list of emotions you know and see how the sessions would add to it? Slide 2  Session Outline The key topics to be covered in the session are: Topic One: Basic Emotions Topic Two: Dimensions of Emotions Topic Three: Specific Emotions Slide 3 Topic One Basic Emotions Slide 4  Basic Emotions How many distinct emotions are there? Are these emotions universal? In other words, can they be found across all cultures?  Basic Emotions Some theories argue that there are just two basic emotion states: Positive and Negative Others state that there are a small set of “basic” emotions; Yet, others argue that there are uncountable number of emotions.  Basic Emotions Emotion researchers have identified between 5 and 10 basic emotions including: – happiness – sadness – anger – fear – disgust – Surprise  Basic Emotions Their corresponding facial expressions of the basic emotions are recognized across different cultures Most of the basic emotions can be expressed by babies Emotions such as contempt, shame, and guilt, develop as we get older.  Universal and Basic Emotions Source: Coon & Mitterer (2011) What emotions are these faces showing? Topic Two DIMENSIONS OF EMOTION Slide 10  Basic Dimensions of Emotions Emotions can be categorized according to a number of dimensions Even though emotion theorists do not agree on the number of emotions, they all do agree on the valence of emotions Emotions are about pleasure/pain, approach/avoidance  Basic Dimensions of Emotions Basic/Complex emotions Primary/Secondary emotions Positive/Negative emotions Pleasant/Unpleasant emotions Active/Passive Intense/Not intense Activated/Deactivated Basic Dimensions of Emotions According to Plutchik (2003) primary emotions often mix to yield more complex emotions Basic Dimensions of Emotions  Basic Dimensions of Emotions Two dimensions of emotion Two dimensions of emotion Myers: Psychology, Ninth Edition in Modules Copyright © 2010 by Worth Publishers Basic Dimensions of Emotions LESS INTENSE PRIMARY EMOTION MORE INTENSE Apprehension Fear Terror Distraction Surprise Amazement Pensiveness Sadness Grief Boredom Disgust Loathing/hate Annoyance Anger Rage Interest Anticipation Vigilance Serenity Joy Ecstasy Acceptance Trust Admiration Topic Three SPECIFIC EMOTIONS Slide 17  Happiness Happiness begins at home (An Akan Proverb) (Source: Appiah and Appiah, 2008)  Happiness People who are happy perceive the world as being safer. They are able to make decisions easily, are more cooperative, rate job applicants more favorably, and live healthier, energized, and more satisfied lives.  Happiness Does Money Buy Happiness? Wealth is like health: Its utter absence can breed misery, yet having it is no guarantee of happiness.  Happiness 1. In wealthy societies, people with more money are happier than people who struggle for their basic needs. 2. People in rich countries are happier than people in poor countries. 3. A sudden rise in financial conditions makes people happy. However, people who live in poverty or in slums are also satisfied with their life.  Happiness Adaptation-Level Phenomenon: Like the adaptation to brightness, volume, and touch, people adapt to income levels (Myers, 2010).  Happiness Happiness is not only relative to our past, but also to our comparisons with others. Relative Deprivation is the perception that we are relatively worse off than those we compare ourselves with.  Happiness Why are some people generally more happy than others?  Predictors of Happiness (Myers, 2010)  Fear Fear can be poisonous; it can torment us, rob us of sleep When you fear someone you are constantly troubled by them in your mind (An Akan Proverb) (Source, Appiah, Appiah, & Agyeman-Duah, 2007)  Fear What is the function of fear, and how do we learn fears? Fear inhibits approach and motivates escape of protective behavior (Izard, 2007)  Anger Anger makes people talk too much (An Akan Proverb) Anger makes a weak man violent (An Akan Proverb) (Source: Appiah , Appiah, & Agyeman-Duah, 2007)  Reading List Izard, C. E. (2007). Basic emotions, natural kinds, emotion schemas, and a new paradigm. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2, 260-280. Slide 29  References Appiah, P., Appiah, A., & Agyeman-Duah, I. (2007). Bu me be: Proverbs of the Akans (2nd ed). Oxfordshire: Ayebia Clarke Publishing. Coon, D., & Mitterer, J. O. (2011). Psychology: Modules for Active Learning. Cengage Learning. Izard, C. E. (2007). Basic emotions, natural kinds, emotion schemas, and a new paradigm. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2, 260-280. Myers, D. (2010). Psychology: Ninth edition in modules. New York: Worth Publishers. Plutchik, R. (2003). Emotions and Life: Perspectives from Psychology, Biology, and Evolution. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Slide 30  PSYC 222 Motivation and Emotions Session 9 – Culture and Emotional Expression Lecturer: Dr. Annabella Osei-Tutu, Psychology Department Contact Information: [email protected] College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2015/2016 – 2016/2017  Session Overview Are certain tribes, ethnic groups, or cultures more emotional than others ? If you found yourself in a different culture, would you be able to communicate your emotions to others who do not know your culture? This session focuses on how culture and gender influence emotional expressions. It will also introduce you to emotions in Ghana, highlighting how the Ghanaian culture influences the experience and expression of emotion. Slide 2  Session Outline The key topics to be covered in the session are: Topic One: Facial Expressions Topic Two: Cultural Influences Topic Three: Gender Differences Topic Four: Ghanaian Emotions Slide 3 Topic One FACIAL EXPRESSIONS Slide 4  Facial Expressions What emotions are these faces showing? (Coon & Mitterer, 2011)  FACIAL EXPRESSIONS Most basic facial expressions are fairly universal o Fear o Anger o Disgust o Sadness o Surprise o Happiness  Facial Expressions Children’s facial expressions, even those of blind children who have never seen a face, are also universal. 7 Topic Two CULTURAL INFLUENCES Slide 8  Cultural Influences Emotions are shaped by cultural ideas, values, and practices. Slide 9  Cultural Influences Some aspects of emotional expressions are universal. Facial expressions, such as happiness and anger, are common the world over. 10  Cultural Influences Display rules for expressing emotions are also similar across cultures. Display rules are the norms and standards indicating which emotions are appropriate in a given situation and how these emotions should be publicly expressed (Ekman,1973). 11  Cultural Influences Cultures differ in how much they express emotions. Some cultures encourage the expression of certain emotions more than others. E.g., African cultures find certain emotions (such as guilt) more desirable. Others emotions (such as pride) are less desirable (Kim-Prieto & Eid 2004). 12  Cultural Influences Some emotional expressions are unique to certain cultures E.g., expressions of anger differ in Western and Asian cultures Emotions such as amae appear to be unique to the Japanese culture Slide 13  Cultural Influences What are the appropriate ways of expressing emotion? Emotion norms are concerned with the value of emotions and how these norms guide the emotional experiences of the members of that culture. Slide 14  Cultural Influences Some cultures value anger and believe it to be a tool through which maturity and wisdom are gained, while other cultures reject anger and believe it to be a socially disruptive force to be avoided at all costs Slide 15  Cultural Influences Cultures differ on what might elicit anger, how that feeling state is understood, and the subsequent action that follows. Expression of anger is more encouraged in cultures that do not promote group behavior than in cultures that do promote group behavior.. Slide 16  Cultural Influences Cultures that are individualistic value emotional distance from the in-group, hold personal goals as primary, and regulate behavior in accordance with attitudes. Cultures that are collectivistic value the integrity of the family and harmony within the in-group, define the self and regulate behavior according to in-group norms, and make strong ingroup/out-group distinctions Slide 17  Cultural Influences Research shows that certain cultures (e.g., in Asia) express concurrent positive and negative emotions in relation to the same event than other cultures (such as those in West) (Lu et al., 2016) Slide 18 Topic Three GENDER DIFFERENCES Slide 19  Gender Differences Many cultures believe that women are more emotionally expressive than men. In other words, men have difficulty expressing their emotions What do you think; is this difference biological or social?  Gender Differences To a large extent, gender differences in emotional expression are influenced by socialization: o Women are allowed to cry more often, for longer and more intensely than men o Most cultures also encourage women to express sadness, fear, shame, guilt etc. o Early in life, men learn to suppress crying and are often encouraged to express mostly anger and hostility Does that mean men do not experience these emotions?  Gender Differences Boys are socialized to suppress their emotion. You may have heard the saying, “real men don’t cry” Boys respond to anger by moving away from that situation, while girls talk to their friends. Topic Four GHANAIAN EMOTIONS Slide 23  Ghanaian Emotions Ghanaians make more references to different body part when communicating about emotions in their local languages (Dzokoto & Okazaki 2006) Example? Slide 24  Ghanaian Emotions English Equivalent Twi Word Literal Translation Happiness anigyeɛ Eye-get Shame animguaseɛ Face-down Anger abufo Chest-grow/rise Peace asomdwee Ear-cool Anxiety Ayɛhyehye Stomach-burn Slide 25  Ghanaian Emotions English Equivalent Dagbani Word Literal Translation Happiness Suhipelli white heart Peace Suhidoo heart at rest Anger Suhiyigsili agitated heart Sadness Suhisajingu destruction of the heart Worry/anxiety Ninimooi eye-red Dzokoto & Okazaki 2006 Slide 26  Ghanaian Emotions English Equivalent Ga word Literal Translation Happiness Miishɛɛ Body-full Hope Hiɛnɔkamɔ Eye-on-something Passion Hiɛdɔɔ Face-(is)-hot Contentment Tsui emɛ Heart-(at)-rest Sympathy Musuɳshalɛ Stomach-burning (Dzokoto,Senft, Washington-Nortey, Kpobi, 2016) Slide 27  Ghanaian Emotions (Dzokoto,Senft, Washington-Nortey, Kpobi, 2016). Slide 28  Ghanaian Emotions Ghanaian cultural values influences the expression of emotion Some cultural groups in Ghana use words, gestures, and moaning to expression pain (Mallam, 1966) Ghanaians are more sensitive to identifying disgust (Skolnick & Dzokoto, 2013) Slide 29  Ghanaian Emotions In the Ghanaian context, certain emotions are more desired than others Desired Emotions Undesired Emotions Trust Shame Guilt Dishonor Pride Pride (See Tamir et al 2015) Slide 30  Reading List Dzokoto, V. A., & Okazaki, S. (2006). Happiness in the eye and the heart: Somatic referencing in West African Emotion Lexicon. Journal of Black Psychology, 32, 117–140. Slide 31  References Dzokoto, V. (2010). Different ways of feeling: Emotion and somatic awareness in Ghanaians and Euro-Americans. Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology, 4, 68. Dzokoto, V. A., & Okazaki, S. (2006). Happiness in the eye and the heart: Somatic referencing in West African Emotion Lexicon. Journal of Black Psychology, 32, 117–140. Dzokoto, V., Senft, N., Washington-Nortey, M., & Kpobi, L. (2016). Their hands have lost their bones: exploring cultural scripts in two West African affect lexica. J Psycholinguist Res, 1-25. Ekman, P. (1973). Cross-cultural studies of facial expression. In P. Ekman (Ed.), Darwin and facial expression: A century of research in review (pp. 169–222). New York: Academic Press. Kim-Prieto, C., & Eid, M. (2004). Norms for experiencing emotions in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Happiness Studies 5: 241–268. Lu, M., Hamamura, T., Doosje, B., & Takemura, K. (2016). Culture and group-based emotions: could group-based emotions be dialectical? Mallam, R. A. (1966). Cultural influences on the patient’s reactions to anxiety and pain. Ghanaian Nurse, 3, 4-6. Skolnick, A. J. & Dzokoto, V. A. (2013). Disgust and contamination: a cross-national comparison of Ghana and the United States. Frontiers in Psychology, 4(9), 1-11. Slide 32  PSYC 222 Motivation and Emotions Session 10 –Disordered Emotions Lecturer: Dr. Annabella Osei-Tutu, Psychology Department Contact Information: [email protected] College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2015/2016 – 2016/2017  Session Overview Experiences of emotion are inevitable. Negative and positive emotions are useful. For instance, negative emotions motivate us to fight or escape to protect ourselves from danger. However, experiencing prolonged negative emotions such as fear, sadness, and anger can be harmful to our mental health. How much negative emotion is too much? This session will introduce you to emotional disturbance and some of the challenges associated with having excessive activation of emotions. Slide 2  Session Outline The key topics to be covered in the session are: Topic One: Emotional Disturbance Topic Two: Fear and Anxiety Topic Three: Sadness and Depression Topic Four: Anger and Aggression Slide 3 Topic One EMOTIONAL DISTURBANCE Slide 4  Emotional Disturbance Emotional disturbances can result from both positive and negative emotions ; – Excesses of emotion: e.g., extreme fear of speaking in public – Deficits in emotion: e.g., lack of empathy; – Social emotional problems: e.g., lack of emotional reciprocity; – Emotion regulation problems; e.g., difficulties in controlling anger. (Kring, 2008) Slide 5  Emotional Disturbance Emotional disturbances can be categorized based 3 broad areas of disruption: 1. Valence 2. Intensity/regulation 3. Disconnections (Berenbaum, Raghavan, Le, Vernon, & Gomez, 2003) Slide 6  Emotional Disturbance Emotional valence disturbances can involve pleasant or unpleasant emotions, as well as too much or too little of these emotions. For examples? Limited experience of pleasure in depression; Excess fear in panic disorder Slide 7  Emotional Disturbance Emotional intensity/regulation disturbances are defined as over- or under-regulation of both pleasant and unpleasant emotions. For example? Excesses in both pleasant (joy) and unpleasant (irritability) emotions in mania Slide 8  Emotional Disturbance Disconnection disturbances reflect disconnections between the expressive component of emotion and other components; Disconnection disturbances also reflect a lack of conscious awareness of one’s own emotional responses Example? In schizophrenia, patients experience strong feelings yet they have difficulty expressing them outwardly (Kring, 2008) Slide 9  Emotional Disturbance Negative emotions are useful They motivate you to avoid misfortune by escaping, attacking, or preventing harm or by repairing damage when it has already occurred. Negative emotions (e.g., fear, anger, and sadness) narrow an individual's momentary thought–action repertoire toward specific actions (Fredrickson, 2002) Slide 10  Emotional Disturbance Positive emotions (e.g., joy, interest, and contentment) broaden our momentary thought– action repertoire and build enduring personal resources Positive emotions loosen the hold that negative emotions gain on an individual's mind and body by undoing the narrowed psychological and physiological preparation for specific action (Fredrickson, 2000). Slide 11  Emotional Disturbance We know that experiences of negative emotion are inevitable and at times useful, but there is a question; How much negative emotion is too much? Extreme, prolonged, or contextually inappropriate, negative emotions can trigger a wide array of problems for individuals and for society. Slide 12 Topic Two FEAR AND ANXIETY Slide 13  Fear and Anxiety Fear and anxiety are closely related emotional phenomena. They both involve intense negative feelings and strong bodily manifestations. Fear is dread of impending disaster and an intense urge to defend oneself, primarily by getting out of the situation (Ӧhman, 2008) Slide 14  Fear and Anxiety Fear encourages avoidance. In the absence of restraints, internal or external, fear support the action of flight. Slide 15  Fear and Anxiety Anxiety is apprehensive anticipation of future danger or misfortune and is often accompanied by a feeling of dysphoria or bodily feeling of tension Anxiety can be defined as unresolved fear, or a state of undirected arousal following the perception of threat (Ӧhman, 2008) Slide 16 Topic Three SADNESS AND DEPRESSION Slide 17  Sadness and Depression Sadness is associated with a loss (of a relationship, a person, an opportunity, etc.) Sadness can motiv