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lOMoARcPSD|26301137 Lecture notes, lectures 1-13 - Questions/answers Lifespan Development for Health A (James Cook University) Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 HS1003: LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT FOR HE...

lOMoARcPSD|26301137 Lecture notes, lectures 1-13 - Questions/answers Lifespan Development for Health A (James Cook University) Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 HS1003: LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT FOR HEALTH A Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 QUESTIONS FROM LECTURE MATERIAL WEEK 1-13 WEEK 1 Why should you study development? - Provide you with realistic expectations about children, adolescents and adults o Normal development - Help you to respond appropriately to a person’s actual behaviour o Evidence base professional judgement - Help you recognise when departures from normal behaviours are significant o Atypical development - Help you to understand yourself - Make you a professional advocate for the needs and rights of people of all ages What are the Characteristics of Lifespan Development? - Lifelong development - Continuity and Change - Culture and the lifespan o Nature vs Nurture - Normative lifespan transitions o Milestone events - Multidirectional/Multidimensional o Interaction of different factors - Not always linear - Plastic o Never too late to grow True or False. Change in lifespan development can be both Quantitative and Qualitative. - True. Can change in number or amount (Quantitative) or change in kind, structure or organisation (Qualitative) What are the stages of lifespan? - Prenatal period (Conception to birth) - Infancy & Toddlerhood (First 2-3 years) - Early childhood (3-6 years) - Middle childhood (6-11 years) - Adolescence (11-20 years) - Young adulthood (20-40 years) - Middle adulthood (40-65 years) - Late adulthood (65 years />) Why is age important in lifespan development? - Founded in psychology o Investigating & understanding behaviour o Objective scientific methodology - Age as a guide - Bio-behavioural process - Age group membership What is the personal meaning of age? - Expressed through people’s attitudes to their age o Asset or liability o Future plan may be affected - Media influence - Affect feelings and thoughts Do cultural influences impact on our perceptions? Yes. There are attitudinal and institutional (e.g. school) factors. Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 What is Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological systems theory? Bronfenbrenner believed that a person’s development was affected by everything in their surrounding environment. He divided a person’s environment into 5 different levels; the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macro system and the chronosystem. Explain Bronfenbrenner’s Microsystem: This is the system closest to the person and the one in which they have direct contact. Some examples would be home, school, day-care, or work. A microsystem typically includes family, peers, or caregivers. Relationships in a microsystem are bi-directional. In other words, your reactions to the people in your microsystem will affect how they treat you in return. This is the most influential level of the ecological systems theory. Explain Bronfenbrenner’s Mesosystem: - The mesosystem consists of the interactions between the different parts of a person’s mircrosystem. - The mesosystem is where a person’s individual microsystems do not function independently, but are interconnected and assert influence upon one another. These interactions have an indirect impact on the individual. o An individual could be negatively affected if an aspect of their microsystem were working against one another. i.e, parents not taking an active role in school stuff/with teacher in discipline Explain Bronfenbrenner’s Exosystem: The exosystem refers to a setting that does not involve the person as an active participant, but still affects them. This includes decisions that have bearing on the person, but in which they have no participation in the decision-making process. An example: A child being affected by a parent receiving a promotion at work or losing their job. Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 Explain Bronfenbrenner’s Macrosystem: The macrosystem encompasses the cultural environment in which the person lives and all other systems that affect them. Examples could include the economy, cultural values, and political systems. The macrosystem can have either a positive or negative effect on s person’s development. For example, the different effects on the development of a child growing up in a 3 rd world economy vs. the USA. True of False. We are products and producers of our environment. True What are the domains of human development? - Physical o Biological; growth of body, sensory, motor skills etc - Cognitive o Thought/intellectual functioning; Learning, memory, decision making, attention span etc - Psychosocial o Personality, social relationships, feelings, identity etc What are some research/scientific methods that have variations in time frames? - Cross sectional study o Compares persons of different ages at a single point in time - Longitudinal study o Observes same group of persons (cohort) at different points in time - Sequential study o Combine elements of above two; at least 2 cohorts observed longitudinally and comparisons made both within each cohort across time and between cohorts at particular points in time. - Ethnography o Observation of a culture or a particular social group over a period of years. What are some research/scientific methods that have variations in control? - Naturalistic studies o Observes persons in naturally occurring situations or circumstances - Experimental studies o Observes person where circumstances are carefully controlled What are some research/scientific methods that have variations in sample size? - Surveys o Large-scale, specific, focused interviews of large numbers of people - Interviews o Smaller numbers, more in-depth and/or complex information - Case studies o One or few individuals, gather wide range of information using different methods and brings this together What is the usefulness of theory in practice? Theories can provide: - Meaningful explanations of developmental change - Platform for research and learning (form hypotheses which are then tested) - Guidance - sound basis for practical action Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 What are the major theoretical perspectives? - Psychoanalytical o Freud, Erikson - Learning o Skinner, Bandura - Cognitive o Piaget, Information-processing - Contextual o Bronfenbrenner, Vygotsky - Adult specific o Normative-crisis, timing-of-events What is Erik Erikson’s theory? - A theory of psychosocial development; describes the impact of social experience across the lifespan - Believed that personality develops in a series of stages - One of the main elements of Erikson's psychosocial stage theory is the development of ego identity. - Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction. According to Erikson, our ego identity is constantly changing due to new experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we face each new stage of development, we face a new challenge that can help further develop or hinder the development of identity. - When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values that help shape and guide a person's behaviour. The formation of identity is something that begins in childhood and becomes particularly important during adolescence, but Erikson believed that it is a process that continues throughout life. Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures and continues to grow as we age. - In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviours and actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. - If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy. - In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in development. In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centred on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high, but so is the potential for failure. If people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with psychological strengths that will serve them well for the rest of their life. If they fail to deal effectively with these conflict, they may not develop the essential skills needed for a strong sense of identity and self. How many stages of development are there in Erikson’s theory? 8 Psychosocial Stages and Developmental Processes: - Trust vs Mistrust (Hope): Birth to 1 year - Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (Will): 1-3 years - Initiative vs Guilt (Purpose): 3-6 years - Industry vs Inferiority (Competence): 6-12 years - Indentity vs Role Confusion (Fidelity): 12-19 years - Intimacy vs Isolation (Love): 19-25 years Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 - Generativity vs Stagnation (Care): 5-50 years Integrity vs Despair (Wisdom): 50 years and older What is the 1st psychosocial stage of Erikson’s theory? Explain this stage. - Trust vs. Mistrust - Birth to 1 year - Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers o If a caregiver fails to provide adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that he or she cannot trust or depend upon the adults in his or her life o If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. - No child is going to develop a sense of 100 percent trust or 100 percent doubt. Erikson believed that successful development was all about striking a balance between the two opposing sides. When this happens, children acquire hope, which Erikson described as an openness to experience tempered by some wariness that danger may be present. What is the 2nd psychosocial stage of Erikson’s theory? Explain this stage. - Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (Will) - 1-3 years - Focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control o At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little bit of independence o They are starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a sense of autonomy. o Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process...learning to control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. o Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection. - Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. - Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that children can act with intention, within reason and limits. What is 3rd psychosocial stage of Erikson’s theory? Explain this stage. - Initiative vs Guilt (Purpose) - 3-6 years - During the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social interactions o Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others o Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative - When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego quality known as purpose emerges What is 4th psychosocial stage of Erikson’s theory? Explain this stage. - Industry vs Inferiority (Competence) - 6-12 years - Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. o Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. o Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful. - Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength known as competence or a belief our own abilities to handle the tasks set before us. Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 What is 5th psychosocial stage of Erikson’s theory? Explain this stage. - Indentity vs Role Confusion (Fidelity) - 12-19 years - During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self. o Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control. o Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future. - Completing this stage successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by society's standards and expectations. What is 6th psychosocial stage of Erikson’s theory? Explain this stage. - Intimacy vs Isolation (Love) - 19-25 years - This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships. - Vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people. o Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are committed and secure. - Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong sense of personal identity was important for developing intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression. - Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people. What is 7th psychosocial stage of Erikson’s theory? Explain this stage. - Generativity vs Stagnation (Care) - 5-50 years - During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family o Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in their home and community o Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world. - Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage What is 8th psychosocial stage of Erikson’s theory? Explain this stage. - Integrity vs Despair (Wisdom) - 50 years and older - This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life o Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and will experience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair o Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. - Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death. What are the strengths of Erikson's theory? - It provides a broad framework from which to view development throughout the entire lifespan - Allows us to emphasize the important influence that social relationships have on development - Researchers have found evidence supporting Erikson's ideas about identity Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 What are the limitations of Erikson’s psychosocial theory? - The exact mechanisms for resolving conflicts and moving from one stage to the next are not well described or developed - The theory fails to detail exactly what type of experiences are necessary at each stage in order to successfully resolve the conflicts and move to the next stage. True or False. With the Erikson theory, conflicts are never fully resolved. Therefore conflicts from earlier stage may affect later development. True What are the 2 Behavioural Learning Theories? - Classical conditioning (Pavlov) o Change a behaviour based on what happens before the behaviour happens. Use a stimulus to elicit a behaviour - Operant conditioning (Skinner) o Change a behaviour based on what happens after the behaviour. Once a behaviour happens use a reinforcer or punishment o Behaviour which is reinforced tends to be repeated True or False. Classical conditioning (Pavlov) uses a stimulus to elicit a behaviour before the behaviour happens. True True or False. Operant conditioning (Skinner) uses a reinforcer or punishment to elicit a behaviour after the behaviour happens. True Explain Bandura’s Social Cognitive Learning theory: - Albert Bandura (1977) states behaviour is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning - Behaviours are learned primarily through observing, imitating models, reward & punishment o Imitating: Child is directly repeating or copying the actions of others o Modelling: Child learns through vicarious (indirect) reinforcement the behaviours and personality traits of a parent or other model. o Individuals observe parents, TV/film characters, friends, peers, teachers etc. - Bandura believes that humans think about the relationship between their behaviour and its consequences. Observational learning could not take place unless cognitive processes were at work. What are the limitations to Bandura’s Social Cognitive Learning theory? - Narrow focus - Unable to explain complex behaviour What are Piaget’s Cognitive Stages? There are 4 major stages - Sensory Motor Stage: Birth - 2yrs - Pre-Operations Stage: 2yrs-7yrs - Concrete Operations Stage: 7yrs-11yrs - Formal Operations Stage: 11yrs-16yrs What are Piaget’s processes of development? - Direct Learning - Social Transmission (Social contact) - Maturation (Biologically determined changes) Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 Explain Piaget’s Sensory Motor Stage of development: - Birth - 2yrs - Much of a baby's behaviour is triggered by certain stimuli, in that they are reflexive o A few weeks after birth, the baby begins to understand some of the information it is receiving from its senses, and learns to use some muscles and limbs for movement. These developments are known as 'action schemas'. - Babies are unable to consider anyone else's needs, wants or interests, and are therefore considered to be 'ego centric'. - Knowledge about objects and the ways that they can be manipulated is acquired. Through the acquisition of information about self and the world, and the people in it, the baby begins to understand how one thing can cause or affect another, and begins to develop simple ideas about time and space. - Large amounts of an infant's experience is surrounding objects. What the objects are is irrelevant, more importance is placed on the baby being able to explore the object to see what can be done with it. At around the age of eight or nine months, infants are more interested in an object for the object's own sake. - A discovery by Piaget surrounding this stage of development, was that when an object is taken from their sight, babies act as though the object has ceased to exist. By around eight to twelve months, infants begin to look for objects hidden, this is what is defined as 'Object Permanence'. Explain Piaget’s Pre-Operations Stage of development: - 2yrs-7yrs - Children's thought processes & vocabulary are developing - Pre-operational children are usually 'ego centric', meaning that they are only able to consider things from their own point of view, and imagine that everyone shares this view, because it is the only one possible. o Gradually during this stage, they are more able to imagine that something or someone else could be the centre of attention. - 'Animism' is also a characteristic of the Pre-operational stage o A person has the belief that everything that exists has some kind of consciousness. An example of this is that children often believe that a car won't start because it is tired or sick, or they punish a piece of furniture when they run into it, because it must have been naughty to hurt them. A reason for this characteristic of the stage, is that the Preoperational child often assumes that everyone and everything is like them. Therefore since the child can feel pain, and has emotions, so must everything else. - They use symbolism o When something is allowed to stand for or symbolise something else - They use 'Moral realism' o The belief that the child's way of thinking about the difference between right and wrong, is shared by everyone else around them. One aspect of a situation, at one time, is all that they are able to focus on, and it is beyond them to consider that anything else could be possible. Due to this aspect of the stage, children begin to respect and insist on obedience of rules at all times, and they are not able to take anything such as motives into account. Explain Piaget’s Concrete Operations Stage of development: - 7yrs-11yrs - The thought process becomes more rational, mature and 'adult like', or more 'operational', although this process most often continues well into the teenage years. - The child has the ability to develop logical thought about an object, if they are able to manipulate it. - Belief in animism and ego centric thought tends to decline, although, remnants of this way of thinking are often found in adults. Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 - - During the Concrete Operational Stage, children gradually develop the ability to 'conserve', or learn that objects are not always the way that they appear to be. o This occurs when children are able to take in many different aspects of an object, simply through looking at it. Children are able to begin to imagine different scenarios, or 'what if' something were to happen. This is because they now have more 'operational' thought. Children are generally first able to conserve ideas about objects with which they are most comfortable. Once children have learnt to conserve, they learn about 'reversibility'. This means that they learn that if things are changed, they will still be the same as they used to be. For example, they learn that if they spread out the pile of blocks, there are still as many there as before, even though it looks different! Explain Piaget’s Formal Operations Stage of development: - 11yrs-16yrs - Finally, in the formal operational stage of adolescence, the structures of development become the abstract, logically organized system of adult intelligence. When faced with a complex problem, the adolescent speculates about all possible solutions before trying them out in the real world. - Thoughts are able to be manipulated and the presence of the object is not necessary for the thought to take place - The capacity for abstraction. This permits adolescents to reason beyond a world of concrete reality to a world of possibilities and to operate logically on symbols and information that do not necessarily refer to objects and events in the real world. - There are 2 major characteristics of formal operational thought. o The first is 'hypothetic-deductive reasoning'. When faced with a problem, adolescents come up with a general theory of all possible factors that might affect the outcome and deduce from it specific hypothesis that might occur. They then systematically treat these hypotheses to see which ones do in fact occur in the real world. Thus, adolescent problem solving begins with possibility and proceeds to reality. o The second important characteristic of this stage is that it is 'propositional' in nature. Adolescents can focus on verbal assertions and evaluate their logical validity without making reference to real-world circumstances. In contrast, concrete operational children can evaluate the logic of statements by considering them against concrete evidence only. What is Information-processing theory? - The information processing theory is a cognitive approach to understanding how the human mind transforms sensory information. o The model assumes that information that comes from the environment is subject to mental processes beyond a simple stimulus-response pattern. - This theory considers the human mind as a symbol-manipulating system - Active learners but not in stages o Accumulated knowledge - Age-related development in cognition - Control processes o Increased efficiency and comprehension - Metacognition o Thinking about thinking o Knowing thinking strategies - Development of expertise knowledge o Knowledge base development Who are the 2 primary Contextual Development theorists? - Bronfenbrenner & Vygotsky What are the contributions of Contextual Developmental theories? - They let us explore people’s social context Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 - Complex issues can be systematically organised Useful for preventative programs True or False. No one theory of human development is universally accepted. True What is Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory? - Emphasis on social interaction in development. Higher mental functions. - Zone of proximal development: has been defined as the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving & the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers - Vygotsky views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills & strategies - He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent children develop with help from more skilful peers - Scaffolding, guided learning, cooperative learning WEEK 2 True or False. Simple physical characteristics, such as height, are almost totally determined by genetics. False True or False. Genetic influences start from the point of conception, and environmental influences start from the point of birth. False True or False. If a mother continues drink moderately during pregnancy there will be a definite impact on the development of her baby. False What is meant by ‘nature versus nurture’? This debate within psychology is concerned with the extent to which particular aspects of behaviour are a product of either inherited (i.e. genetic) or acquired (i.e. learned) characteristics. - Nature is what we think of as pre-wiring and is influenced by genetic inheritance and other biological factors. o It has long been known that certain physical characteristics are biologically determined by genetic inheritance. Colour of eyes, straight or curly hair, pigmentation of the skin and certain diseases (such as Huntingdon’s chorea) are all a function of the genes we inherit. Other physical characteristics, if not determined, appear to be at least strongly influenced by the genetic make-up of our biological parents. o Height, weight, hair loss (in men), life expectancy and vulnerability to specific illnesses (e.g. breast cancer in women) are positively correlated between genetically related individuals. These facts have led many to speculate as to whether psychological characteristics such as behavioural tendencies, personality attributes and mental abilities are also “wired in” before we are even born. o Those who adopt an extreme heredity position are known as nativists. Their basic assumption is that the characteristics of the human species as a whole are a product of evolution and that individual differences are due to each person’s unique genetic code. In general, the earlier a particular ability appears, the more likely it is to be under the influence of genetic factors. o Characteristics and differences that are not observable at birth, but which emerge later in life, are regarded as the product of maturation. That is to say we all have an inner “biological clock” which switches on (or off) types of behaviour in a preprogrammed way. The classic example of the way this affects our physical development are the bodily changes that occur in early adolescence at puberty. Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 - - - - However nativists also argue that maturation governs the emergence of attachment in infancy, language acquisition and even cognitive development as a whole. o Examples of an extreme nature positions in psychology include Bowlby's (1969) theory of attachment, which views the bond between mother and child as being an innate process that ensures survival. Likewise, Chomsky (1965) proposed language is gained through the use of an innate language acquisition device. Another example of nature is Freud's theory of aggression as being an innate drive (called thanatos). Nurture is generally taken as the influence of external factors after conception e.g. the product of exposure, experience and learning on an individual. o At the other end of the spectrum are the environmentalists – also known as empiricists (not to be confused with the other empirical / scientific approach). Their basic assumption is that at birth the human mind is a tabula rasa (a blank slate) and that this is gradually “filled” as a result of experience (e.g. behaviorism). o From this point of view psychological characteristics and behavioural differences that emerge through infancy and childhood are the result of learning. It is how you are brought up (nurture) that governs the psychologically significant aspects of child development and the concept of maturation applies only to the biological. o For example, when an infant forms an attachment it is responding to the love and attention it has received, language comes from imitating the speech of others and cognitive development depends on the degree of stimulation in the environment and, more broadly, on the civilization within which the child is reared. o In contrast Bandura's (1977) social learning theory states that aggression is a learnt from the environment through observation and imitation. This is seen in his famous bobo doll experiment (Bandura, 1961). Also Skinner (1957) believed that language is learnt from other people via behaviour shaping techniques. However in recent years there has been a growing realization that the question of “how much” behaviour is due to heredity and “how much” to environment may itself be the wrong question. Take intelligence as an example. Like almost all types of human behaviour it is a complex, many-sided phenomenon which reveals itself (or not!) in a great variety of ways. The “how much” question assumes that the variables can all be expressed numerically and that the issue can be resolved in a quantitative manner. The reality is that nature and culture interact in a host of qualitatively different ways. It is widely accepted now that heredity and the environment do not act independently. Instead of defending extreme nativist or nurturist views, most psychological researchers are now interested in investigating the ways in which nature and nurture interact. For example, in psychopathology, this means that both a genetic predisposition and an appropriate environmental trigger are required for a mental disorder to develop. This realization is especially important given the recent advances in genetics. The Human Genome Project for example has stimulated enormous interest in tracing types of behaviour to particular strands of DNA located on specific chromosomes. Newspaper reports announce that scientists are on the verge of discovering (or have already discovered) the gene for criminality, for alcoholism or the “gay gene”. What are the factors which interfere with healthy prenatal development? - Teratogens o A teratogen is an agent, which can cause a birth defect. It is usually something in the environment that the mother may be exposed to during her pregnancy. It could be a prescribed medication, a street drug, alcohol use, or a disease present in the mother which could increase the chance for the baby to be born with a birth defect. About 4 to 5 percent of birth defects are caused by exposure to a teratogen.  Medications: thalidomide, diethylstilbestrol (DES) • Non-medicinal drugs – Foetal alcohol syndrome, foetal alcohol  Maternal disease: Viruses, bacteriological & parasitic diseases, STDs, HIV/AIDS  Environmental hazards: Physical, biological, chemical, radiation Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 The effect of teratogens is influenced by what factors? - Timing of exposure (Critical periods for development in first trimester) - Intensity and duration of exposure (More exposure = more damage) - Number of other harmful influences - Biogenic vulnerability of mother and baby What environmental factors are harmful to prenatal development? Age of mothers o 35 years>higher risk of infertility and down syndrome infant o Teenager (higher risk for low birth weight babies, stillbirths, birth complications) Domestic violence o Stress, family dysfunction Weight gain Cigarettes, alcohol, drugs What are some of the things the mother can do to assure the well-being of the foetus? - Know the risk factors (weight gain, cigatettes, alcohol, drugs, signs of pregnancy complication) - Rest, exercise, personal hygiene - Preparation for labour and birth - Effective use of the health care system. - Prenatal care - Diet and nutrition What must recessive genes be paired with in order to be expressed? Must be paired with another recessive gene to be expressed (e.g., blue eyes, colour-blindness, baldness, type O blood, PKU) Dominant genes are always expressed in______________. Phenotype. e.g., brown eyes, curly hair, facial dimples, type A blood, Huntington’s disease Define Alleles: Alternate genetic forms (i.e. genes that can produce alternative expressions of a characteristic) Define Co-dominance: Both alleles expressed (e.g. AB blood type) Define polygenic traits: Affected by many genes and environment What are some genetic abnormalities? - Chromosome abnormality (e.g. Down syndrome) - Dominant gene disorders (e.g. Huntington’s disease) - Recessive gene disorders (e.g. Sickle-cell disease) - Multifactorial (e.g. congenital heart disease) What are the stages of prenatal development? - Conception (zygote) - Germinal (0 - 2 weeks) o Blastocyst implants in uterus wall - Embryonic (3 - 8 weeks) o Umbilical cord connects embryo to placenta o Amniotic sac develops o Growth and development of major organs and systems - Foetal (9 weeks – birth) o Bones form; growth Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 o Complexity of systems and features increase What are the two patterns of development? - Cephalocaudal (head to tail) - Proximodistal (centre to extremities) What are the types of foetal presentation at birth? - Cephalic - Breech - Transverse What are the stages of labour? - First stage: up to 10cm cervix dilation o Transition to full dilation - Second stage: culminates in birth - Third stage: expulsion of placenta and umbilical cord What are some problems that can occur during labour? - Faulty power o Oxytocin can induce labour - Faulty passageway o Placenta previa - Faulty passenger o Breech, cephalopelvic disproportion - Caesarean section o When vaginal delivery is unsafe o Expectations and difficulties of parents with disabilities What are some challenged after birth for the family? - Learning new parenting skills - Rearranging family schedules - Meeting economic demands - Need social and emotional support - Other children need involvement in the preparation and a role in the event - Keep routine and allow time for older children What are the major medications used during childbirth and what are their effects on the baby? - Analgesics (medication type) o Positive effects for mother: An injection during the first stage of labour to reduce pain. Causes some drowsiness and euphoria. o Negative effects for the baby: May cause drowsiness & decreased responsiveness for first few hours after birth or longer; naloxone hydrochloride (Narcon) can be used to reverse these effects. - Local anaesthesia - Spinal (medication type) o By injection into spinal canal in controlled doses when cervix is fully dilated (beginning of second stage of labour); numbs sensory & motor nerves so that mother’s pelvic area & legs cannot more voluntarily. o Positive effects for mother: Mother can remain awake & aware during labour & delivery; can be used for either vaginal or caesarean birth; is highly effective in elimination pain. o Negative effects for baby: No negative effects reported. - Epidural o By injection during active phase of first stage of labour to numb sensory nerves after their exit from spinal canal. o Positive effects for mother: Pain & sensations are generally eliminated; mother is awake; some voluntary movement is preserved, although it is less effective because a woman’s sense of position & tension are blocked by the medication. Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 - o Negative effects for baby: No negative effects reported. General anaesthesia o A mixture of nitrous oxide and oxygen is inhaled; is less commonly used than blocking agents. o Positive effects for mother: Easily administered, rapid onset of effect; anaesthetic of choice in emergencies in which time is critical and baby must be delivered quickly. o Negative effects for baby: Decreases alertness & responsiveness following birth. WEEK 3 What is the appearance like of an infant at birth? Red skin, vernix (white waxy substance on skin), lanugo (fine downy hair), head may be elongated from pressure of birth canal. What is the Apgar scale? - A system of rating newborns’ health immediately following birth based on heart rate, strength of breathing, muscle tone, colour and reflex irritability. Developed in the 1950’s by Dr Virginia Apgar, the name is also used as an acronym for appearance, pulse, grimace, activity, respiration. True or False: Brain controls infant’s states of sleep and wakefulness, and amount of internal and external stimulation experienced. True. Sleep enables infant to shut out external stimulation and obtain general physical rest. Newborns sleep an average 16 hours per day; 6 month olds sleep an average 13 to 14 hours per day. True or False. With physical maturation, there is eventual less night time fussiness with infants. True. What is Non REM sleep? A relatively quiet, deep period of sleep. Breath regularly & more slowly, muscles become limper What is REM sleep? - A relatively active period of sleep, named after the rapid eye movements that usually accompany it. - May be a way for the brain to stimulate itself, vital for the growth of the central nervous system (CNS) o Drowsiness o Alert inactivity o Alert activity o Distress True or False. Newborn infants able to see but lack acuity. True. - Able to see about 20 to 25 cm, distance from mother’s breast to her face - Able to track moving objects and scan interesting sights - By six months visual acuity improved to near adult level, improved scanning and tracking - Scanning enhances perception and perception enhances scanning - Infants’ developing knowledge of objects and events promotes pattern perception – evident in facial recognition True or False. True or False. Infants show preference for human face. - True o Around 2 months infants can scan a stimulus, combine its parts into an organised whole and recognise and prefer their mother’s facial features o Five months – infants able to perceive emotional expressions of faces o Possibility that face specific regions of the adult cortex are functioning from birth Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 o Face to face interaction between infants and caregivers refines face perception True or False. Most infants can hear at birth. True. - Newborns can hear the difference between sound patters such as two syllables as opposed to three syllables, happy verse negative speech - Three days old, infants able to turn eyes and head to sounds True or False. Through interest in the environment, the infant starts to perceive (organise) sights and sounds and attach meanings to them (Information Processing Theory). True. - Parents provide many of the most interesting sights and sounds with their own faces and voices - Promotes attachment - Attachment and responsiveness to sound nurtures and supports the infant’s exploration of the environment What are reflexes? - Automatic responses to specific stimuli o First observable signs of motor responses o Survival mechanism for protection and seeking food o Used to assess a healthy nervous system o Used to assess possible developmental delay or brain damage o Most reflexes integrated as voluntary actions within 6 months What are the 4 types of reflexes? - Survival Reflexes - Primitive Reflexes - Postural Reflexes - Locomotor Reflexes What are Survival Reflexes? - Survival reflexes meets physical needs and increases chances of surviving. Most remain permanent, although some become partly voluntary: o Breathing o Swallowing o Eye blink o Pupillary reflex remains permanent o Sucking reflex gradually comes under voluntary control - Survival Reflexes- Rooting - Stroking of cheek - head turns to side stroked and mouth opens ready to feed. - Orients child to breast or bottle. - Weakens and disappears by 6 months. - If retained: messy eaters, problems chewing, ‘dribbling’, Speech difficulties – muscles around mouth under developed What are Primitive Reflexes? - Primitive reflexes are reflex actions originating in the central nervous system that are exhibited by normal infants, but not neurologically intact adults, in response to particular stimuli. - Moro Reflex, Grasping Reflex, Tonic Neck Reflex / Assymetrical Tonic Neck Reflex (ATNR), Babinksi. o Primitive Reflexes - Moro  Alarm reflex – matures into adult startle reflex around 4 months  Important fight or flight response  Can be elicited by dropping baby’s head back / loud noise  Baby throws arms outwards, arches back then brings arms back together Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 If retained: Hypersensitivity in any of the senses, Impaired coordination & balance,  Travel sickness, Poor concentration, Over anxious or over reactive. Primitive Reflexes – Grasping  Curling fingers around any small object put into baby’s palm  Disappears by three months  Voluntary grasping appears about 6 months  Allows baby to practice grasping and letting go  If retained: Impedes development of independent finger movements, Affects writing, other FM skills, ball skills. Primitive Reflexes – Tonic Neck Reflex  Present at birth and may assist in birthing process  When laid on back, head turns to side, arm and leg extend to same side, limbs on opposite side flex  Disappears by 2 – 3 months  If retained: Difficulty crawling, Abnormal walk, Difficulty crossing the midline – affects playing sport, tracking for reading, May not establish a dominant side. Primitive Reflexes – Babinski  When bottom of foot stroked toes fan and then curl  Disappears 8 to 12 months  If retained: May indicate damage to the corticospinal tract (nerve paths connecting the spinal cord to the brain).  o o o What are Postural Reflexes? - Gravity reflexes – help maintain posture in a changing environment - Typically appear after 2 months - Remain for life – important for balance, stability, postural tone, muscle tone - Head righting reflex (labarynthine), Segmental rolling reflex (de-rotativerolling), Parachute o Postural Reflexes – Head Righting Reflex  Reaction to gravity to ensure head maintains a midline position, despite movements of other parts of body  Brain synchronises information from visual, vestibular and proprioceptivesenses  From 6 weeks  If not fully developed, can affect: Development of head control, Controlled eye movements, Balance, Visual Perception, Posture. o Postural Reflexes – Segmental Rolling  Emerges at 6 months  Allows rolling, sitting, crawling and standing  Rolling starts at shoulders and hips  Movement starts at head, follows to shoulders, chest, pelvis or vice versa o Postural Reflexes – Parachute Reflex  Develops from 7 months  Protective movement in response to changes in centre of gravity  Tilt forwards and arms bend  If not fully developed: Poor saving reactions, Clumsy, Reduced confidence during GM activities What are Locomotor Reflexes? - Appear similar to voluntary movement patters - Unclear links between locomotor reflexes and the later skills which they mimic - Typically emerge very early and disappear by 4 – 5 months - Stepping reflex (birth to 5 months) - Swimming reflex (11 days to 5 months) - Crawling reflex (birth to 4 months) - Moving in place. Reflexes Time How to elicit Expected Response Functions Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 MORO Disappe ars by 6 months The infant’s head is dropped backward Arm stretching then clenching Babinsk i Birth to 4 months Birth to 4 months Stroke sole of foot from heel to toes Turn head to one side Toes extend, fan out Palmer Grasp Reflex Birth to 4 months Pressure in the palm Root Head righting Birth to 1 yr 2-12 months Touch cheek with smooth object Move infant’s body backwards/forwa rds/ sideways Head turns to side stimulated The head tilts in the opposite direction to the body to ensure midline Parachu te From 7 months Lower infant toward ground Arms extend ATNR The upper and lower limbs on the side toward which the infant is looking extend and the upper and lower limbs on facing the back of the head flex Fingers curl around Transforms to Adult startle response. To alert, arouse, and summon assistance. Facilitates first breath of life. Helps test neurocognition It may be a sign of the damage to the nerve paths May participate in birth process to help with corkscrew motion down birth canal. As neonate it ensures free passage of air when baby is in prone position. It increases extensor muscle tone and forms basis for later reaching movements Transforms to voluntary release progressing to a pincer grip. Thought to be a continuation of an earlier stage in human evolution when it was still necessary for neonate to cling to mother for survival Assist in feeding Form the basis of balance, oculomotor functioning, orientation and spatial awareness. Facilitate movement – more coordinated GM movements Protective movement, consider motor developmental phase What are Motor Skills? Voluntary movements of the body / parts of the body What are Gross Motor Skills? Involve the large muscles of the arms, legs and torso Crawling, walking, jumping What are Fine Motor Skills? Involve small muscles located throughout the body Reaching, Grasping Although some milestones do deviate, skills generally develop following which two trends? - Cephalocaudal Principle: (head-tail) o Upper parts of the body become usable and skilful before lower parts of the body do o Babies able to turn their heads before learning to intentionally move their feet - Proximodistal Principle: (centre of body to outward) o Central parts of the body become skilful before peripheral o Babies wave with entire arm before learning to wriggle wrists and fingers Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 Almost from birth, before reflexive behaviour disappears, babies begin to master their bodies and environment. Discuss their first use of motor skills: - 4 weeks – lift heads up when lying on stomachs - 4 months – rolling - 5 – 9 months – sit alone - 6 – 7 months – use limbs – ‘bicycle’ legs – nappy change - 7 – 11 months – crawling – driven by desire to explore environment - 10 months – stand erect with adult help - 12 months – half can stand without adult help - Pre-reaching o Newborns’ poorly coordinated swipes or swings, as they attempt to grasp objects they see in front of them o May fail to grasp objects, make contact but fail to enclose fingers – not yet developed shoulder and head control and eye gaze o Disappears soon after birth reappears at 4 – 5 months as two separate skills: reaching and the ulnar grasp - Ulnar Grasp o Clumsy grasping, fingers close against the palm - Pincer grasp o By 12 months ulnar grasp replaced with pincer grasp – use of thumb and forefinger o Increasing ability to pick up and manipulate small objects such as raisins What predictable series of events leads to true walking? - Lifting of head - Push chest up with arms - Pull up with assistance - Remain sitting without assistance once up - Sit up without assistance - Pull self to stand - Stand holding on to furniture - Walk holding on to furniture - Stand well alone - Walk well alone (12 to 13 months) True or False. Differences in motor development across cultures can be linked to different child rearing practices - True. o Western Desert Aboriginal and Perth based urban Aboriginal children - earlier motor development. Mothers often carry infants in vertical position – resulting in earlier strengthening of the neck muscles – aids in development of head control and sitting. o Some African cultures give their toddlers frequent chances to practice sitting and walking – earlier and better walking than Aus and NZ toddlers True or False. Boys and girls are more alike than different. True. What is cognition? - Refers to thinking and other mental activities. - All processes which humans acquire knowledge - Methods for thinking or gaining knowledge about the world - Elements of cognition include reasoning, attention, memory, problem solving, reasoning, planning, ability to represent objects and experiences What is Attention? Ability to focus these cognitive processes such as perception, memory and thinking on a particular task What is Perception? Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 The brain’s immediate or direct organisation and interpretation of sensations through the senses. What can changes in a baby’s heart signify? Changes in the baby’s heart rate signify variations in the baby’s arousal, alertness and contentment - Novel and attractive stimuli: slower heart rate - Dangerous / aversive stimuli: faster heart rate - Factors such as infant’s alertness, stimuli that lead to slower HR in adults, increase HR in infants, more likely to respond to gentle, persistent stimuli, - Despite these factors, studies of HR provide a useful way to measure attention, perception and memory What is recognition in regards to infants? - Infants unable to verbalise what they remember, but they show signs of recognition of people, objects, and activities. o Signs may include cooing, stretching out of arms, and crawling / walking towards familiar person o Unfamiliar person may produce signs of distress What is habituation in regards to infants? - The tendency to get used to and then ignore stimuli which has been experienced repeatedly o Signs of habituation: decrease of HR, attention and respiration o Enables studies of infant’s learning and development o Suggests infants have memories prior to acquiring language o Implications for Parent: child relationships; young babies begin to recognise their parents quite quickly, even at just a few weeks of age. Does the thinking cognition of infants involve language to the same extent as children and adults? No. As infants are only beginning to acquire language skills, the thinking (cognition) of infants does not involve language to the same extent as children and adults. - Broaden our notion of cognition to include the nonverbal signs of cognition such as HR and direction of the eyes and ears - Infants show not only perception of the world around them, but cognition as well – before they can even speak a single word Do newborns prefer images with contours and edges of light and dark? Yes. At two to three months they start to prefer images of complexity and curvature. Human faces have these qualities, as do other images and objects What is Object Constancy? - Perception that an object remains the same despite concept changes in the sensations it sends to the eye. o Shape constancy o Size constancy o Appears to be an innate ability that assist babies to detect a coherent world of objects What is Depth Perception? - Refers to a sense of how far away object are or appear to be and the ability to judge the distance of objects from each other and from ourselves. o Infants begin to develop this skill as soon as they can focus on objects at different distances ( 2- 3 months) o Crawling skills may enable distances to be perceived more accurately  When crawling far away objects to move less than nearby objects Do infants think about what they see or just register what they see? Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 An infant’s anticipation of visual events that have not occurred suggests infants think about what they see, rather than just register what they see. Infants may be forming rudimentary generalisations about what they see, such as where to look to see another friendly smile Even as newborns, infants respond to sounds. Why is it important to understand how individuals perceive sounds and discriminate among sounds? - Makes a crucial difference in the acquisition of language o At just two months, infants can orient their heads towards certain noises – suggesting they can locate sounds o Infants usually take longer to respond to sounds than older children / adults o Infants more capable of locating high pitched sounds than low pitched sounds – researchers had previously taken this to show a tendency towards female voices o More accurate to say infants prefer the mid-range pitches – similar to all human voices o Coordination of vision and hearing  This localisation of sound suggests that even very young babies are able to coordinate what they hear with what they see  First efforts at head turning is more of a reflex than purposeful behaviour, does not habituate, occurs in the dark  Not until 5 to 6 months do these reflexive qualities change and hearing and vision becomes coordinated. What is Intermodal Perception? Refers to the way that the sensations from the different sensory systems are combined to form perception of unitary events or objects. Ability of infants to combine what they have learnt about an object using one sensory mode with what they have learnt about it using another. o E.g. Lip movements are closely coordinated to the sound of voice Crucial for perceptual development Variety of stimulation of the senses assists the infant in selectively attending to and making sense of their world Assists in the development of language and social processing Vital for development and perceptual responsiveness What is reversal shift? An experimental procedure in which reinforcement continues for discriminating a new value of a dimension (e.g. large versus small), but the dimension itself (such as size) remains constant. What is non-reversal shift? Experimental procedure in which reinforcement shifts to discriminating a new dimension of difference between objects (e.g. shape versus size) What is Sensorimotor Intelligence? According to Piaget, thinking that occurs by way of sensory perceptions & motor actions that is characteristic of infants. Doing this to and with objects around them. Sensorimotor intelligence develops by means of two complementary processes. What are they? Assimilation and accommodation. Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 - - - Assimilation: Interpreting new experiences and incorporating this knowledge into existing schemes. o A baby incorporates the existing scheme of sucking on a breast, by using the same action on new unfamiliar objects such as a ball or their own fist. o Taking in and understanding events by matching perceived features of events or objects with already existing schemes. Accommodation o Modifying existing schemes to fit new experiences o After sucking on a number of new objects, an infant may modify this action to fit the nature of each new object – i.e. chew on some new objects such as a sweater, but not others such as a plastic cup. o Infant has altered and modified existing schemes to incorporate new information that does not exactly fit. Interplay of assimilation accommodation leads to new schemes, and eventually the infant’s ability to symbolise objects and activities. Piaget believed Knowledge comes from _____________. Action - Knowledge seen as a process or a repertoire of actions, rather than as stored information - To know something means to act on that thing, with the action being either physical, mental or both How do infants use symbolic thinking? - Instead of needing to handle a toy car, able to visualise, mentally represent or think about a car without actually touching or seeing one. - Infants can work out solutions with mental combinations rather than trial and error. o This helps mark the end of infancy and the beginning of the next stage. What does Piaget mean by ‘schemes’? - Psychological structures / organised patterns of actions or concepts that help the baby to make sense of and adapt to the environment. - Develop before infants can represent objects or events through language or motor skills - Initial grasping and sucking motions constitute early schemes What does Piaget believe Cognitive development begins with? Reflexes - Reflexes give infants a repertoire to develop more complex skills - Sucking, grasping and looking – resemble reflexes at birth, but are modified in response to experiences such as sucking on their mother’s breast, toys and own hand - Babies suck reflexively when mouths are stimulated, and also respond to sights, sounds and objects within external environment Piaget has proposed 6 stages of infant cognitive development. What are they? - Stage one: early reflexes (0 – 1 month) • The baby modifies and elaborates on these reflexes o A reliance on inborn reflexes to know the environment. Actions are primarily based on reflexes as well as responses to sights, sounds, and grasping. Toys include mobiles and rattles - Stage 2: Primary Circular Reactions (1 – 4 months) o Reflexes are accommodated or modified to fit new objects and experiences. Infants intentionally look and listen to sights and sounds and coordinate their senses (e.g. sucking, grasping and repeating actions focused on the infants own body). - Stage 3: Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months) o Repeated, learnt actions are focused on objects; actions are used as a means towards an end and repeated actions are reinforcing (e.g. shaking a rattle and early signs of object permanence). Toys include squeeze objects, plastic cups and boxes with lids. - Stage 4: Coordination of secondary schemes (8-12 months) Downloaded by Sting Ray ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|26301137 Deliberate combinations of previously acquired actions (or schemes), infants imitate behaviour, e.g. blowing bubbles, using events to obtain a goal and making the A-not B error of searching for a toy in one location (A), even after seeing it moved to