Chapter 4 Theories of Human Development PPT PDF

Chapter 4 Theories of human development PowerPoint ® Lecture Notes Presentation © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Lecture Overview ⚫Nature of Human Development...

Chapter 4 Theories of human development PowerPoint ® Lecture Notes Presentation © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Lecture Overview ⚫Nature of Human Development ⚫Major Developmental Stages in the Lifespan ⚫Physical Development ⚫Cognitive Development ⚫Socio-emotional Development ⚫Moral Development © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Developmental Psychology ⚫The focus of developmental psychology is on age-related changes in behaviors throughout the life span © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E ⚫Key development issues include: ◦ Nature versus nurture To what extent are behaviors the result of experience or the result of biological processes such as maturation? ◦ Critical and sensitive periods. Are some experiences especially important at particular ages? ◦ Stability versus change To what extent are behaviors constant over the life span? ◦ Continuity versus stages Continuity view suggests that change is uniform and gradual Stage theory suggests that change can be rapid with qualitatively different stages evident across the life span Theoretical Issues © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Stage Approximate Age Prenatal Conception to birth Infancy (infant) Birth to 18 months Early childhood (toddler, preschool) 18 mo. to 6 years Middle childhood (school-age) 6-12 years Adolescence (adolescent) 12-20 years Young adulthood (adult) 20-45 years Middle adulthood 45-60 years Later adulthood (senescent, old-age) 60 years to death Life Span Development © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E  Prenatal Development ⚫Prenatal development occurs in 3 stages: ◦ Germinal period (ovulation to implantation), zygote: first 2 weeks, the ovum travels down the fallopian tube, is fertilized by a sperm, and is then implanted within the wall of the uterus ◦ Embryonic period, embryo: implantation to 8 weeks ◦ Fetal period, fetus: 8 weeks to birth © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Teratogens ⚫Teratogens are environmental substances that can cause birth defects in the developing fetus ◦ Maternal alcohol use leads to fetal alcohol syndrome (facial defects, low IQ, neurobehavioral defects) ◦ Nicotine exposure leads to premature births, low birth weights, fetal deaths, cognitive problems, behavioral abnormalities © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E ⚫Poor maternal nutrition can impair fetal development ⚫Drug use by father can damage sperm: ◦ Alcohol, opiates, cocaine, lead, and various gases are known to damage sperm Prenatal Hazards © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Body Proportions Change over the Life Span © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E ⚫Cephalocaudal principle: development proceeds in a head-to-foot direction ⚫Proximodistal principle: development begins along the innermost parts of the body and continues toward the outermost parts. Biological principles of physical and motor development © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E ⚫Early motor actions of the infant are limited to reflexes ⚫Myelination and further brain development allow for crawling and then walking Motor Milestones © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Motor Milestones © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Perceptual Abilities at Birth ⚫Infant vision is poor at birth (equivalent to 20/200 to 20/600) ⚫Functionality of other sensory systems: ◦ Hearing is functional prior to birth ◦ Smell is functional at birth ◦ Touch and pain are functional at birth ⚫Infant perception can be inferred by changes in heart rate upon stimulus exposure or by changes in sucking rate © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E ⚫Puberty- biological changes during adolescence that lead to an adult-sized body and sexual maturity ◦ growth spurt ◦ menarche: onset of menstruation ◦ spermarche: first ejaculation ◦ secondary sex characteristics Adolescence © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Adolescence © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E ⚫Menopause- the cessation of the menstrual cycle ⚫Male climacteric- decline in production of sperm and testosterone ⚫After middle age, most physical changes are gradual and occur in the heart, arteries, brain, and sensory receptors Middle Age © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E ⚫Ageism- prejudice or discrimination against an individual based on physical age ⚫Primary aging- gradual, inevitable age- related changes in physical and mental processes ◦ Programmed theory ◦ Damage theory ⚫Secondary aging- changes resulting from disease, disuse or neglect Aging © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E ⚫Jean Piaget believed infants begin at a cognitively “primitive” level and progress in distinct stages. ⚫Piaget’s schemas are the most basic unit of intellect, which act as patterns that organize interactions with the environment. Piaget Stages of Cognitive Development © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E ⚫Cognitive adaptation reflects the actions of two complementary processes: ◦ Assimilation: absorbing new information into existing schemas ◦ Accommodation: adjusting old schemas or developing new ones to better fit with the new information © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Cognitive Development— Piaget’s Four Stages ⚫Sensorimotor: birth to 2 years ⚫Preoperational: 2 to 7 years ⚫Concrete Operational: 7 to 11 years ⚫Formal Operational: 11 years and up 20 © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Social-Emotional Development ⚫Attachment is defined as an active, intense, emotional relationship between two people that endures over time ⚫Attachment as an innate process: ◦ Bowlby argued that infants have verbal (cooing) and nonverbal (smiling, following) responses that elicit nurturance ⚫Attachment as “contact comfort”: ◦ Harlow found that infant monkeys preferred contact with terry cloth surface over access to food © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Attachment and Harlow’s work with monkeys--feeding or contact comfort? © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E  Types of Attachment ⚫Ainsworth found 3 distinct categories of attachment evident in children in a strange situation: ◦ Secure attachment: infant stays close to mother, shows moderate distress when separated, and is happy when mother returns ◦ Avoidant: infant does not seek contact with mother and does not cry when she leaves ◦ Anxious/Ambivalent: infant is upset when mother leaves and angry when she returns © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Social-Emotional Development—Romantic Love and Infant Attachment ⚫Research suggests that early infant to caregiver attachment patterns may carry over into adult romantic relationships. 25 Social-Emotional Development— Baumrind’s Three Parenting Styles 1. Permissive a. Permissive indifferent parents set few limits and give little attention or support. b. Permissive indulgent parents are highly involved but set few demands or controls. 26  Study Tip: 2. Authoritarian To avoid parents are confusion, note: rigid and punitive. ⚫ Two “Rs” in AuthoRitaRian 3. Authoritative = “Rigid Ruler!” parents are ⚫ Two “Ts” in tender and caring. AuThoriTarian = “Tender Teacher!” Social-Emotional Development— Baumrind’s Three Parenting Styles 27  ⚫Authoritarian parents impose rules and expect obedience. They combine high control with little warmth. The rules are not explained. They expect the child to obey when the authority figure is near. ⚫Authoritative parents are both demanding and responsive. They combine high control with high warmth. They explain the reasons & encourage discussion. They tend to have competitive children Parenting Styles 28  ⚫Permissive offer warmth but little control. Parents submit to their children’s desires, make few demands, and use little punishment. Children may develop specific competencies, not many. ⚫Neglectful parents provide neither warmth nor control. They may meet basic physical needs but minimize the amount of time they spend with their children and avoid becoming emotionally involved with them. They produce the least competent children. Parenting Styles 29 Personality Development: Erikson’s Eight Psychosocial Stages Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 year) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3 years) Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years) Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years) Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence) Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood) Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood) Ego Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood) ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Moral Development ⚫Kohlberg developed a model of moral development (right and wrong) based on responses to moral dilemmas. ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Moral Development: Kohlberg’s 3 Levels and 6 Stages PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL Stage 1: punishment-obedience orientation Stage 2: instrumental-exchange orientation CONVENTIONAL LEVEL Stage 3: good child orientation Stage 4: law-and-order orientation POSTCONVENTIONAL LEVEL Stage 5: social-contract orientation Stage 6: universal ethics orientation ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning Meeting the Challenges of Adulthood— The Socioemotional Selectivity Theory ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) ⚫Cultures interpret and respond to death differently. ⚫Different ages also interpret and respond to death according to: Permanence Universality Nonfunctionality Grief and Death ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Grief and Death ⚫Kübler-Ross developed a five stage theory of the psychological processes surrounding death: Denial (“It can’t be true!”) Anger (“Why me? It’s not fair!”) Bargaining (“I’ll change everything!”) Depression (“I’ve lost everything.”) Acceptance (“I know my time is near.”) ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Grief and Death ⚫ Grief is a natural reaction to loss. ⚫ Four major stages of grief: 1. Numbness 2. Yearning 3. Disorganization/Despair 4. Resolution ©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007 Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) 37