Chapter 1: Introduction to Lifespan Development PDF

Chapter 1: Introduction to Lifespan Development From Janet Belsky’s Experiencing the Lifespan, 3e + http://dept.clcillinois.edu/psy/ lifespandevelopment.pdf Meredyth Fellows, West Chester University of PA Definition pg 9 Developmental...

Chapter 1: Introduction to Lifespan Development From Janet Belsky’s Experiencing the Lifespan, 3e + http://dept.clcillinois.edu/psy/ lifespandevelopment.pdf Meredyth Fellows, West Chester University of PA Definition pg 9 Developmental Psychology (also known as Human Development or Lifespan Development) is the scientific study of ways in which people change, as well as stay the same, from conception to death Definition pg 9 Developmentalists explore: ▫ Predictable milestones in development ▫ Individual differences  Nature versus Nurture  Temperament, Talent, Traits ▫ Normative and non-normative transitions Originally only focused on infants and children. Now, every stage is being studied  Who We Are and What We Study pg 9  Lifespan development: the scientific study of human development throughout life. ▫ Conception, Infancy, Childhood, Adolescence ▫ Emerging Adulthood, Adulthood ▫ Gerontology  Study of lifespan development is multidisciplinary  Lifespan Perspective pg 10 Development is lifelong Development is multidirectional. Development is multidimensional. Physical domain Cognitive domain Psychosocial domain Development is multidisciplinary. Development is characterized by plasticity. Plasticity is all about our ability to change and that many of our characteristics are malleable.  Lifespan Perspective pg 10 Development is multicontextual. Normative age-graded influences Ex toddler, adolescent, senior Normative history-graded influences Cohort- group of people who are born at roughly the same time period in a particular society Non-normative life influences a life event that is not typical of the age group.  Cohort Changes in Adult and Late Life Late 20th-Century “Revolution in Lifestyles” Baby boomers come of age (60s-early 70s) Civil Rights; Women’s Movement; Sexual Revolution Positive change: more open society with ability to make new choices at any time of life Negative changes related to economics: single parenthood; poverty  Lifespan Perspective pg 10 Socioeconomic status (SES) is a way to identify families and households based on their shared levels of education, income, and occupation. The Great Recession of 2008  Setting the Context Culture- is the totality of our shared language, knowledge, material objects, and behavior. Culture is learned from parents, schools, religion, media, friends and others throughout a lifetime. The belief that our own culture is superior is called ethnocentrism. It becomes a roadblock when it inhibits understanding of cultural practices from other societies.  Conceptions of Age pg 13 Chronological age- number of years since birth Biological age- how quickly the body is aging psychological age- Our psychologically adaptive capacity compared to others of our chronological age Social age- based on the social norms of our culture and the expectations our culture has for people of our age group. ex. College, retirement Setting the Context  Issues in Lifespan Development pg 16 Stage theories or discontinuous development assume that developmental change often occurs in distinct stages that are qualitatively different from each other, and in a set, universal sequence. Continuous development- development is a more slow and gradual process  Changing Conceptions of Childhood pg 17 Preformationism- the belief that a tiny, fully formed human is implanted in the sperm or egg at conception and then grows in size until birth. (little adults, no environmental role) John Locke (1632-1704) Humans born a “tabula rasa”, environment Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Infants are innocent Natural plan We should lovingly nurture babies These practices not instituted until early 20th century  Changing Conceptions of Childhood pg 18 Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) Freud emphasized the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our personality and behavior. psychodynamic perspective, psychosexual development difficult to test scientifically  Freud pg 18 Psychoanalytic Theory Childhood experiences (personality & behavior) Age-Linked Stages Psychosexual development His theories are heavily criticized Difficult to test scientifically Issues with his research Many later theories started to challenge his psychoanalytic theory  Contemporary Theories on Development pg 18 Erik Erikson (1902-1994) and Psychosocial Theory 8 stages, entire lifespan psychosocial crises- period of life has a unique challenge or crisis that the person who reaches it must face. Culture? Timeline? (adolescence)  Psychosocial Development: Erikson pg 18 Considered “the father of lifespan development” (1902-1994)  Believed we continue to develop throughout life  Exception to Freud’s idea that development ends in adolescence  Identified core developmental tasks, or psychosocial crisis, for each of eight stages from infancy to old age  Believed that we need to master the crisis of each previous stage in order to deal with later stages.  Contemporary Theories on Development pg 18 Learning theory or Behaviorism- based on the premise that it is not possible to objectively study the mind, and therefore psychologists should limit their attention to the study of behavior itself. Reinforcement Social learning theory- learn by watching others Cognitive theory- focus on how our mental processes or cognitions change over time Jean Piaget (1896-1980)- Cognitive Developemnt Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)- sociocultural theory  Behaviorism: The Original “Nurture” Theory Traditional Behaviorism: John Watson and B. F. Skinner ▫ Nurture is all important! ▫ A real science: study observable, measurable responses ▫ If we understand the scientific laws of learning, we can produce any behavior we want!  Behaviorism Behaviorism is based on the premise that it isn’t possible to objectively study the mind, and therefore psychologists should limit their attention to the study of behavior itself. Application of rewards, or reinforcements Provided insights about the nature-nurture debate and the question of free-will Behaviorists were incorrect in their beliefs that it wasn’t possible to measure thoughts and feelings.  A Different Perspective: Cognitive Behaviorism (Social Learning Theory) Albert Bandura (1977) Cognition and Modeling Learn by modeling (imitating) others We model people who are nurturing, or involved with us. We model those whom we perceive as being like us. e.g., At about age 2, gender identification and gender- specific behaviors develop. Our perceptions about reinforcers (rewards) determine our behavior.  B. F. Skinner: Operant Conditioning Conditioning = Learning Operant Conditioning The law of learning that determines any voluntary response Variable reinforcement schedules We behave a certain way because we are reinforced (rewarded) for certain behaviors. Any behavior that is reinforced is likely to be repeated. Any behavior that is not reinforced is likely to be extinguished.  Social Learning Theory Reciprocal determinism- There is interplay between our personality and the way we interpret events and how they influence us. Ex: Between parents and children, Parents not only influence their child's environment, but children influence parents as well. Parents may respond differently with their first child than with their fourth. Our environment creates us and we create our environment.  Age-Linked Theories: Piaget pg 20 Cognitive-Developmental Theory (1896-1980) Qualitatively different stages exist in the way thinking develops (different age groups conceptualize the world in completely different ways). Studied his own children. Believed children intelligence change over time and that maturation, as opposed to training, brings about change Cognitive Development: Piaget Tried to understand the unique qualities of childhood cognition by entering children’s mental framework, setting up tests, watching children’s actions, and listening to them speak  Theories of Development Theory Any perspective that attempts to explain individual behavior Allows us to predict behavior Presents ideas for interventions to improve behavior Nature/Nurture Are we shaped by biological/genetic forces or is the environment more influential? We’ll look at each theory from this perspective. The Developmental Systems Perspective pg 21  Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005):  Highlighted multidirectional forces in human development  The total ecology, or life situation of the child, influences his/her development.  A child’s experiences are shaped by larger forces, such as family, school, religion, culture, and time period  The Scientific Method pg. 20-21 Scientific method is the set of assumptions, rules, and procedures scientists use to conduct research. 1.Review the literature 2.Formulate a Hypothesis 3.Design the study 4.Collect the data 5.Draw Conclusions 6.Report the findings Advantages?  Research Methods pg 24 Research design: Specific method researcher uses to collect, analyze, and interpret data. Psychologists use three major types of research designs in their research, and each provides an essential avenue for scientific investigation Descriptive research research that describes what is occurring at a particular point in time Correlational research research designed to discover relationships among variables and to allow the prediction of future events from present knowledge. Experimental research research in which a researcher manipulates one or more variables to see their effects  Descriptive Research pg 24 case study - descriptive records of one or a small group of individuals’ experiences and behavior. Developmental psychologist Jean Piaget observed his own children Most case studies are conducted on individuals who have unusual or abnormal experiences Advantages? Disadvantages?  Descriptive Research pg 24 Naturalistic observation- psychologists observe and record behavior that occurs in everyday settings. Does not allow the researcher to have any control over the environment. Best with children or individuals with intellectual impairments  Descriptive Research pg 24 Naturalistic observation- psychologists observe and record behavior that occurs in everyday settings. Does not allow the researcher to have any control over the environment. Laboratory observation- is conducted in a setting created by the researcher. permits the researcher to control more aspects of the situation Ex. The strange situation test Disadvantage? Knowing you’re being watched  Descriptive Research pg 24 Survey- a measure administered through either a verbal or written questionnaire to get a picture of the beliefs or behaviors of a sample of people of interest. Sample- The people chosen to participate in the research Population- all the people that the researcher wishes to know about Ex. Do you was your hands after using a public restroom? Advantages/Disadvantages  Descriptive Research Interviews- participants are directly questioned by a researcher Solve the problem of misinterpreting the questions posed on surveys takes longer and are more expensive to administer than surveys Psychophysiological Assessment- Researchers record psychophysiological data, such as measures of heart rate, hormone levels, or brain activity to help explain development  Research Methods: Correlational pg 26 Correlational Study- Pearson Correlation Coefficient- symbolized by the letter r, is the most common statistical measure of the strength of linear relationships among variables. Researchers chart the relationships between variables. Correlation does not equal causation! Research Methods: Experiments  Experimental Research pg 32 Experiment- is a method of identifying cause-and-effect relationships by following a set of rules that minimize the possibility of bias, error, and chance occurrences. Advantages & Disadvantages?  Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Studies: How do we change with age? Cross-Sectional Testing and comparing different age groups at the same time Gives differences between age groups Does not tell us the changes that occur with age Sequential research includes elements of both longitudinal and cross- sectional research designs. Longitudinal Test at intervals – one group over many years Dunedin Multidisciplinary and Development Study Quantitative and Qualitative Research Quantitative The typical research mode in developmental science using groups and statistical analyses to make general predictions about behavior Qualitative  Scientist not interested in numerical comparisons  Studying the life of a single person through observation and interviews, or observing a single individual in depth