Developmental Psychology Lectures PDF

**Developmental Psychology Lectures** - **Key Points** - **Definition and Scope of Developmental Psychology** - The study of human behavior as a function of age, focusing on how and why we change throughout our lifespan. - Interested in physical maturation...

**Developmental Psychology Lectures** - **Key Points** - **Definition and Scope of Developmental Psychology** - The study of human behavior as a function of age, focusing on how and why we change throughout our lifespan. - Interested in physical maturation, cognitive development, and social experience. - **Areas of Study** - Physical Development: Changes in body, motor skills, puberty, and aging. - Cognitive Development: Perception, language, learning, memory, and problem-solving. - Psychosocial Development: Personality, emotions, gender identity, moral behavior, interpersonal skills, and roles. - **Change and Continuities** - Change: Systematic, orderly, and relatively enduring changes such as developmental milestones (e.g., crawling to walking, physical maturation at puberty). - Continuities: Ways in which we remain consistent over time, such as attachment from infancy to adulthood and consistent personality traits (e.g., temperament). - Theories in Developmental Psychology - Temperament - Management - Environmental - Nature and Nurture in Human Development - In the study of human development, two fundamental forces shape our growth and abilities: nature (genetics) and nurture (environment). Here are some key points: - **Universal Genetically Determined Capacities:** - Humans share inherent capacities for language and motor development, as proposed by stage theorists. - These capacities are influenced by our genetic makeup (nature). - **Environmental Influence on Expression:** - The expression of these capacities is shaped by the environment. - Babies learn what is necessary for survival and well-being based on their surroundings. - Cultural values and societal norms also impact how these capacities are expressed. - **Nature and Nurture Interact:** - Nature and nurture are not separate; they work together in intricate ways. - Different cultures exhibit varying child skills and needs. - Our biological maturation (nature) must reach a certain level before environmental factors (nurture) can have an impact. - **Parental Interaction and Cultural Context:** - Parents play a crucial role in a child's development. - The broader social and cultural environment also influences expression. - Adaptive and maladaptive aspects of the environment affect children differently. - **Maturation and Motor Development** - Maturation involves the unfolding of genetically programmed behaviors crucial for motor development. Yet, environmental factors, such as childrearing customs, significantly influence this process. - **Environmental Influences:** - Swaddling. - Carrying on the Body. - \"Baby\" Containers like seats, swings, and floor spaces. - **Environmental Role in Motor Development** - Cultural practices impact motor development. In some cultures, babies are often placed in containers, while in others, they are carried in slings or pouches, which provides constant postural stimulation. This stimulation promotes head control, balance, and trunk stability. Conversely, frequent use of baby seats or swings can limit these developmental benefits. - **Cultural Differences in Motor Milestones** - Research by Annette Hamilton (1981) showed that Indigenous Australian infants, traditionally carried on their mother\'s back, reached motor milestones earlier than Anglo-Australian infants. This early development is attributed to their early and regular support in a sitting position. Similar trends are observed in Ugandan infants compared to their Anglo-European counterparts. - **SIDS Prevention and Prone Positioning** - In the early 1990s, studies linked the prone sleeping position to higher SIDS risks. As a result, new guidelines advised against placing babies on their tummies to sleep. Consequently, babies who avoided prone sleeping also missed out on "Tummy Time," leading to delayed motor milestones like lifting their heads and propping up on their arms. - To address this, parents were encouraged to provide "Tummy Time" while babies were awake to promote proper motor development. This demonstrates how changing child-rearing practices can influence developmental pathways. - **Other major theories of development ** - All these theories have profoundly influenced how parents, educators, and policymakers approach child-rearing.  - **Psychoanalytic Theory:** Founded by Sigmund Freud, psychoanalytic theory describes human behaviour through the interaction of various personality components, such as the id, ego, and superego.  - **Cognitive Development Theory:** These theories, proposed by Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg, suggest that children's intelligence evolves as they grow. This evolution involves a progressive reorganization of mental processes influenced by both biological maturation and environmental experiences. Proponents are often called \"stage theorists,\" as they believe that advancing to the next stage requires mastering the previous one.  - **Social Cognitive Theory:** Social Cognitive Theory explains human development as a result of the interplay between individual experiences, the actions of others, and environmental factors. Albert Bandura's work is central to this theory.  - **Ethological Theory:** Ethological theories, closely related to evolutionary biology, focus on behaviour changes that enhance survival. Prominent examples include John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth's theories on attachment. - **Psychosocial Theory:** Developed by Erik Erikson and his wife Joan Erikson, psychosocial theory offers a framework for understanding changes in self-concept, social relationships, and one's role in society from infancy through old age. Like Piaget and Kohlberg, Erikson is a stage theorist, believing that progression to each new life stage depends on successfully navigating the challenges of the previous stage. This approach is often referred to as the Psychosocial Stage Theory of Development. - Early Development - **Zygote Formation:** - The process begins with the fusion of an egg and sperm to create a zygote, marking the earliest stage of human development. - **Blastocyst Stage:** - Within a few days post-fertilization, the zygote undergoes rapid cell division and becomes a blastocyst, a cluster of cells ready to implant into the uterine wall. - **Embryonic Stage** - This stage extends from shortly after conception until about eight weeks after the carrier's last menstrual period. During this critical period, the foundational structures, tissues, and organs of the body start to form rapidly. - **Fetal Stage:** - From the eighth week onward, the developing human is called a fetus. At this stage, all major organs are present, and extensive growth and further development occur throughout the remaining 32 weeks of pregnancy. - **Critical and Sensitive Periods:** Certain stages in development are crucial for specific abilities to emerge. While early experiences are vital, humans are also highly adaptable and resilient. Even adverse early experiences can be overcome through development. - Cognitive Development - Piagets theory of cognitive development: childrens minds are different to adults and they construct an understanding of the world through exploration and experience - Assimilation vs accommodation - **Piaget's Contributions to Cognitive Development** - Key Discoveries: Jean Piaget made significant contributions to understanding how children think. He introduced concepts such as: - Object Permanence: The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible. - Conservation: The realization that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance. - Limitations: While Piaget's theory provides valuable insights, it has limitations, including its rigid stage framework and underestimation of children's abilities. - **Learning in a Social Context** - Vygotsky's Perspective: Unlike Piaget's view of solitary cognitive exploration, Lev Vygotsky emphasized the importance of social interactions in learning. Children learn and develop through engagement with others in their cultural and social environments. - Key takeaways: - **What is Developmental Psychology?** - Definition: Developmental psychology is the study of how and why human behavior changes over the lifespan. It explores the processes behind our growth and development, seeking to answer the question: \"How and why do we change?\" - **The Interplay of Nature and Nurture** - Collaborative Forces: Nature (genetics) and nurture (environment) are not separate influences but work together to shape our development. They interact continuously to influence who we become. - **Reciprocal Influences** - Bidirectional Impact: Development is a dynamic exchange where individuals and their environments influence each other. For example, parents shape their children's behaviors, and children's behaviors, in turn, shape how parents respond and care for them. - Gender Development: - Both environmental and biological factors play a role in shaping sex and gender - **Gender stereotypes** - **Definition** - Gender Stereotypes are beliefs about what behaviours and activities are suitable for boys and girls. - **Examples of Gendered Practices** - Room Colors and Furnishings: - Boys: Typically have rooms decorated with blue and items associated with masculinity. - Girls: Typically have rooms decorated with pink and items associated with femininity. - Activities and Toys: - Boys: Encouraged to play with toys like trucks, toy guns, and footballs. - Girls: Encouraged to play with dolls, playhouses, and participate in nurturing activities. - **Influence of Adults and Peers** - Parents and Teachers: - Treat boys and girls differently, reinforcing gender stereotypes through their responses and expectations. - Peers: - More accepting of gender-conforming behaviours, such as girls playing with dolls rather than boys. - **Cultural Influence and Shifts** - Traditional Norms: - Historically, society has dictated what activities and toys are appropriate for each gender, contributing to fixed gender roles. - Evolving Trends: - There is a growing acceptance of girls participating in activities traditionally reserved for boys, like football and soccer, suggesting a shift towards more fluid gender roles. - **Persistent Stereotypes vs. Changing Roles** - Children's Toys: - Despite societal changes, toys for girls often still promote traditional domestic roles, while boys\' toys encourage active and building play. - Contrast with Adult Roles: - Many adult women are breaking away from traditional domestic roles, pursuing diverse careers and responsibilities. - **Societal Categorisation** - Objects and Media: - Society often categorises objects and media as \"for boys\" or \"for girls,\" reinforcing stereotypes. For example, action movies are labeled as \"boys\' movies,\" while princess-themed movies are labeled as \"girls\' movies.\" - Genderisation: - Assigning gender to colors and items (e.g., blue for boys, pink for girls) continues to shape perceptions and expectations of appropriate behaviours and activities for each gender. - **Gender Perceptions and Treatment in Infancy** - **Initial Reactions:** When a baby is born, one of the first questions people ask is, \"**Is it a boy or a girl?**\" This often comes before concerns about the baby's health. - **Early Differences:** At birth, the main difference between boys and girls is anatomical. However, infants are quickly labeled and treated differently based on their gender. - **Parental Perceptions** - Boys: Seen as stronger, with larger features and more coordination. - Girls: Seen as weaker, with finer features and less coordination. - Reality: Pediatricians confirm there are no significant physical differences in strength, coordination, or features between infant boys and girls. - **Influence of Perceptions:** Parental beliefs about strength and weakness shape how they interact with their children. For example: - **Boys:** Viewed as more robust and receive more active play. - **Girls:** Viewed as more delicate and receive gentler handling. - **Classic Study: Jack-in-the-Box Experiment** - **By age 2** - **Significant Gender Socialisation: ** - Children have already experienced considerable gender-based treatment and expectations.  - Adults often see boys and girls as more different than they are.  - **Emergence of Gender Categories ** - Society views sex as an important category, influencing interactions with children. - Boys and girls are treated differently based on perceived gender differences.  - **Basic Gender Identity ** - By the end of the second year, children start to understand their own gender. - They establish a basic gender identity, recognising themselves as either a boy or a girl. - **Cisgender Assumption** - Historically, it was assumed that all children naturally identify with the gender assigned at birth (cisgender). - **Recent Research** - New studies challenge the assumption that all children are cisgender.  - This research suggests that children\'s understanding of gender identity can be more complex and diverse. - Childhood - Gender development accelerates in childhood, with children becoming more aware of and adhering to gender stereotypes.  - Schools often reinforce these stereotypes, leading to strong gender segregation in play and activities, resulting in boys and girls developing different skills and interests. - **Transition from Childhood to Adolescence ** - **Merging of Groups** - Boys and girls, previously segregated, begin to interact more frequently.  - The formation of romantic relationships brings them together.  - Limited prior experience interacting with the opposite sex can cause difficulties in communication and understanding.  - Two distinct \"cultures\" are now merging, requiring adjustment and adaptation.  - **Biological and Social Changes ** - Puberty brings significant physical and hormonal changes, intensifying gender differences.  - Increased social expectations and pressures related to gender roles and relationships.  - **Influence of Social Media ** - Social media amplifies gender stereotypes and societal expectations.  - Adolescents are exposed to and influenced by these intensified portrayals of gender roles.  - **Identity Development ** - Adolescents move from a simple understanding of gender (boy or girl) to a more complex consideration of adult gender identity.  - This period involves exploring and solidifying their gender identity and overall sense of self.  - **Gender Stereotypes** - Gender stereotypes often exaggerate perceived differences in traits and abilities. - Research indicates that while some differences exist, they are usually small and significantly influenced by socialisation, culture, and environmental factors.  - It is essential to consider the role of these influences and avoid overgeneralising based on gender.  - **Gender Theories** - Psychoanalytic Theory - **Concept**:  - Proposed by Sigmund Freud.  - Focuses on identification with the same-sex parent during the phallic stage of psychosexual development.  - **Oedipal Complex: ** - Boys initially feel attraction to their mother and rivalry with their father.  - Fear of castration by the father leads boys to identify with their father, adopting masculine traits and behaviours. - **Electra complex:** - Girls experience the Electra complex, feeling attraction to their father and rivalry with their mother - Identification with the mother is considered less intense due to the absence of castration fear. - **Critique: ** - Limited empirical support.  - Relies heavily on traditional gender roles and the presence of both parents.  - Seen as outdated by many modern psychologists.  - **Biological Basis** - **Chromosomes and Hormones: ** - Chromosomes: XX for females, XY for males.  - Hormones: Testosterone and estrogen influence the development of secondary sexual characteristics and behaviours. - **Evolutionary Theory: ** - Suggests that gender differences evolved to maximise reproductive success.  - Men evolved to be more aggressive and competitive, while women evolved to be more nurturing and cooperative. - **Cognitive Developmental Theory** - P**roposed by Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg: ** - Focuses on how children\'s understanding of gender develops through stages.  - Children actively construct their gender identity through interaction with their environment. - **Stages: ** - Gender Identity: Recognising themselves as male or female (around age 2-3).  - Gender Stability: Understanding that gender is stable over time (around age 4-5).  - Gender Consistency: Realising that gender remains the same regardless of changes in activities or appearance (around age 6-7). - **Gender Schema Theory** - **Proposed by Sandra Bem: ** - Combines social learning and cognitive-developmental theories.  - Children learn about gender roles and cultural norms through schemas, or mental frameworks, that guide their understanding and behaviour.  - **Schemas**:  - Influence how children interpret and remember information related to gender.  - Lead children to seek out activities and behaviours consistent with their gender schema.  - **Social Cognitive Theory** - **Proposed by Albert Bandura: ** - Emphasises the role of observational learning, imitation, and modeling in acquiring gender roles.  - Children learn gender-appropriate behaviours by observing others and the consequences of their actions.  - **Components: ** - Attention: Noticing gender-specific behaviours.  - Retention: Remembering these behaviours.  - Reproduction: Reproducing the observed behaviours.  - Motivation: Being motivated to imitate the behaviour, often influenced by rewards and punishments.  - Emphasises the role of observational learning, social influences, and self-regulation in gender development.  - Children learn gender roles through reinforcement, modelling, and media exposure.  - Despite social influences, children exercise agency and self-regulation in adopting gender behaviours. - **Biological Approaches ** - **Testosterone**:  - Traditionally considered a purely biological factor.  - Recent research indicates it can be socially modulated, challenging the clear-cut distinction between biological and social influences.  - **Challenges in Isolating Factors ** - Gender differences cannot be attributed solely to biological factors.  - Social, environmental, and psychological factors interact with biological influences.  - **Van Anders\' Research (2015): ** - Explores how social and biological factors interact in influencing gender and sex.  - Challenges the notion that sex and gender are strictly biologically determined.  - **Modern Understanding of Sex and Gender ** - Non-Binary and Gender Fluid Identities - Increasing recognition of identities beyond the binary male and female categories.  - This diversity further complicates the attempt to strictly differentiate sex and gender based on biological origins.  - Gender Identity and Constancy - **Gender Identity:** Children must label themselves based on physical attributes.  - **Gender Stability**: Understanding that gender remains stable over time.  - **Gender Consistency: **Recognising that gender remains the same regardless of activities or interests.  - **Biological Determinism:** Kohlberg\'s theory emphasises biology as the primary driver of gender identity.  - **Modern Perspectives:** Challenge strict biological views, highlighting the complexity and fluidity of gender identity.  - Social Cognitive Theory: - **Triadic reciprocal determinism** - The Triadic Model is a central concept in Social Cognitive Theory. It illustrates how three factors interact and influence each other: - **Behavior (B):** - Actions and responses of the individual, including their choices, habits, and skills. - **Personal Factors (P):** - Cognitive, affective, and biological events that include a person\'s beliefs, expectations, self-perceptions, and capabilities. - **Environmental Factors (E):** - External aspects that can influence an individual, such as social interactions, physical surroundings, and cultural norms. - In the triadic model, these factors are not static but dynamically influence each other: - **Behavior → Environment:** - A person's actions can alter the environment. For instance, a student\'s active participation in class can encourage more engaging teaching methods. - **Environment → Person:** - Environmental contexts can shape personal factors. For example, a supportive family can bolster a person's self-efficacy. - **Person → Behavior:** - Individual beliefs and attitudes can influence how one behaves. For instance, confidence in one's abilities can lead to tackling challenging tasks. - New Views: - Social Cognitive Theory: Children\'s gender behaviours are influenced by what they observe and the feedback they receive, shaped by self-regulation and social factors.  - New Gender Identity Views: Traditional binary views are challenged by research showing that gender can be fluid and not strictly tied to biological sex.  - Olson\'s Research: Demonstrates that transgender children have a clear understanding of their gender identity, behaving similarly to their identified gender and showing that gender identity is more flexible than previously thought.  - **Gendered Behaviour** - **Flexibility in Gender Roles ** - Girls: More involved in activities like football.  - Boys: Some increase in caregiving roles, though less pronounced compared to females.  - **Persistent Stereotypes: ** - Despite increased flexibility, traditional gender stereotypes remain strong.  - These stereotypes contribute to ongoing gender inequality.  - **Impact of Gender Stereotypes ** - Education: In some countries, women lack access to education.  - Income: Women often earn less than men, illustrating economic inequality.  - **Influence on Life Course ** - Gender roles and stereotypes influence key aspects of life, such as career opportunities and personal aspirations.  - The impact of gender roles on everyday life is substantial and pervasive.  - **Resistance to Stereotypes ** - Girls: Those interested in non-traditional activities (e.g., soccer) often form supportive groups with like-minded peers.  - Boys: May also seek out supportive subgroups for activities like knitting, helping them avoid criticism and develop skills.  - Interaction within supportive subgroups promotes non-stereotypic gender behaviour, fostering acceptance and proficiency. - Moral Development - M**oral Development:** Focuses on children learning right from wrong and internalising societal rules.  - **Internalisation:** Key to moral development, allowing children to self-regulate their behaviour.  - **Effective Methods:** Reasoning and explanation are more effective than harsh discipline for internalising rules.  - **Parenting Practices:** Positive discipline promotes self-regulation, while harsh discipline leads to external regulation and potential misconduct in the absence of supervision.  - **Moral Conduct ** - **Learning Moral Rules ** - Children primarily learn moral rules from their parents.  - Other sources include teachers, peers, and media.  - **What Children Learn ** - Prohibitive Rules:  - What Not to Do: Understanding behaviours that are wrong or unacceptable.  - Pro-Social Behaviour:  - What to Do: Encouraging positive, socially beneficial behaviours. - Actions intended to benefit others and promote social harmony.  - Fosters positive social interactions and relationships.  - Helps children develop empathy and social responsibility. - Theories of morality - **Piaget** - In 1932, Jean Piaget, a cognitive developmental psychologist, wrote the classic book \"The Moral Judgment of the Child.\" Despite being nearly a century old, this book remains influential in understanding the stages and sequences of moral development in children. - **Piaget\'s Stages of Moral Development** - **Morality of Constraint** - **Stage**: Early childhood, up to the beginning of the concrete operational stage. - **Focus**: Children judge the wrongness or naughtiness of behavior based on consequences. - **Reasoning**: Consequences are concrete and easily observable, making them simpler for young children to process. - **Morality of Cooperation** - **Stage**: Later childhood. - Focus: Children judge behavior based on intentions rather than consequences. - **Reasoning**: Intentions are more abstract, requiring higher cognitive processing. - To illustrate his theory, Piaget used vignettes. Here are two examples: - Paul: Steals a biscuit from the cookie jar and breaks a cup and saucer. - Peter: Sweeps the kitchen, knocking over a tray and breaking 15 cups and saucers. - **Judgment by Age:** - **Younger Children**: Judge Peter as naughtier due to the greater number of broken items (consequences). - **Older Children**: Judge Paul as naughtier due to the act of stealing (intentions). - Researchers later identified a confound in Piaget\'s vignettes: - Negative Intention & Small Outcome: Paul steals a biscuit and breaks one item. - Positive Intention & Large Outcome: Peter sweeps and breaks 15 items. - To address this, researchers proposed additional vignettes: - Paul: Steals and breaks 15 cups. - Peter: Sweeps and breaks one cup. - With these four scenarios, even young children sometimes focus on intentions rather than just consequences. - Kohlberg built upon Piaget's theory to explore moral development in older children, developing a cognitive developmental theory that progresses universally and invariantly. His work involved studying boys aged 10, 13, and 16 through moral dilemmas, focusing on their reasoning rather than their answers. - **Key Elements of Kohlberg\'s Theory** - **Heinz Dilemma** - An example dilemma involves Heinz, whose wife is dying and needs an expensive drug to survive. Heinz asks if he should steal the drug, exploring the reasoning behind the decision rather than the act itself. - **Stages of Moral Development** - **Stage 1: Preconventional Morality** - **Focus**: Satisfying personal needs, avoiding punishment, and obtaining rewards. - **Reasoning**: Decisions are based on external factors, such as punishment or reward. - **Example**: \"I won\'t do it because I don\'t want to get punished\" or \"What's in it for me?\" - **Stage 2: Conventional Morality** - **Focus**: Social approval and adherence to social conventions. - **Level 3**: Gaining approval and avoiding disapproval from others. - **Example**: \"I won't do it because people won't like me.\" - **Level 4**: Following rigid codes of law and order. - **Example**: \"I won't do it because I don't want to break the law.\" - **Stage 3: Postconventional Morality** - **Focus**: Abstract principles of justice and internalized ethical principles. - **Level 5**: Social contract and public good. - **Example**: \"I will do it because it's my duty.\" - **Level 6**: Personal moral code. - **Example**: \"I will do it because it's the right thing to do regardless of what others think.\" - **Kohlberg claimed his theory was universal, but there are several critiques:** - **Gender Bias** - **Cultural Bias** - Influences: Cultural factors, such as family dynamics, can influence moral reasoning, challenging the universality of Kohlberg's stages. - Gender Differences in Scoring - Level Three and Level Four: - Observation: Most women score at level three, while most men score at level four. - Interpretation: This has led to the argument that men are more moral than women. - Gilligan\'s Argument - Social Approval Focus: Both levels are focused on social approval. - Interchangeability: Levels three and four could easily be reversed, indicating no intrinsic differences. - Gender Bias: Arguing that one level is more gender-specific than the other is incorrect. - Gender Bias in Kohlberg\'s Tasks - Male-Oriented Tasks: Gilligan points out that the moral dilemmas used, such as the Heinz dilemma, are more male-related. - Impact: This suggests a gender bias in Kohlberg's assessment of moral development. - **Regulation of Moral Behavior** - External and Internal Responses: Moral behavior is influenced by how individuals perceive others\' responses and their own self-response. - Common Theme: All theories suggest that behavior is regulated by both external and internal factors. - **Developmental Progression** - Shift from External to Internal: As children develop, they transition from being influenced mainly by external factors to internal factors. - Lifespan Influence: External factors remain important throughout the lifespan, though their significance can vary among individuals. - **Role of Experience in Learning Moral Standards** - Parental Influence: Children learn right and wrong through experiences and parental responses. - Reasoning: Providing reasons for behavior helps children internalize moral standards more effectively. - Example: \"Don\'t take that toy because it belongs to your brother and he will be upset.\" - **Importance of Modeling Good Behavior** - Adoption of Behavior: Modeling positive behavior promotes the adoption of similar behavior in children. - Self-Regulation: As children develop their standards of right and wrong, they become better at self-regulating their behavior. - Moral Reasoning and Moral Conduct - Moral reasoning does not consistently predict moral conduct. Although delinquents often score lower on moral reasoning tests compared to non-delinquents, and those with higher moral reasoning scores are less likely to cheat, these findings are not strong. Knowing moral principles doesn\'t guarantee adherence to them. People may understand the rules and the consequences of breaking them but may still fail to self-regulate their behavior according to these principles.  - Moral Disengagement - A concept has been introduced in the literature to explain the discrepancy between children\'s understanding of wrong actions and their engagement in those actions. For instance, children know that cheating and aggression are wrong, yet they still engage in these behaviors while maintaining a positive self-image. - **Bandura\'s Concept of Moral Disengagement** - Albert Bandura introduced the concept of moral disengagement, which involves the selective activation and deactivation of internal controls. This means that while individuals know that certain actions, like bullying, are wrong because they harm others, they still engage in these actions. They manage to maintain their moral standards by invoking moral disengagement strategies. - **Strategies of Moral Disengagement** - **Excusing the Behavior:** Justifying bullying by believing it is acceptable in a particular situation. For example, saying it was done to teach a lesson. - **Obscuring Personal Causation: **Misrepresenting the consequences, such as believing that the actions did not really hurt the victim. - **Vilifying the Victim:** Rationalizing that the victim deserved the bullying because they are perceived negatively. - **Examples of Moral Disengagement** - **Reprehensible Conduct: **Engaging in behavior known to be wrong. - **Agency:** Shifting blame to others, e.g., \"They all did it, so it's not my fault.\" - **Detrimental Effects: **Minimizing the harm caused, e.g., \"It was just teasing.\" - **Deserving Victims:** Believing that the victim deserved the treatment. - **Implications of Moral Disengagement** - This concept explains why individuals, including children, who understand and uphold moral rules can still engage in harmful behaviours without feeling guilt or remorse. It helps to understand why bullying remains prevalent even though it is widely condemned. - Social Cognition - **The "Rouge" Experiment ** - Young children are often captivated by their reflections in mirrors. However, it is not until around 18 months of age that they recognise the image in the mirror as themselves. - Theory of mind - **What is the theory of mind?  ** - The appreciation that other people may think differently, and that what they think will guide their behaviour. - The \'theory of mind\' refers to the child\'s understanding that people think differently and that these thoughts, rather than objective reality, drive their actions. - **False Beliefs** - An advancement in the theory of mind is the realisation that people can hold false beliefs. These are convictions about reality that are not true, and they can vary from one person to another. Moreover, individuals will act in alignment with these false beliefs. - The realisation that people can hold beliefs that are not true. - These beliefs can differ from one\'s own and influence behaviour. - **Implications of Understanding False Beliefs:** - Negative Perspective: Enables deception and manipulation. - Positive Perspective: Enhances empathy and perspective-taking. - **Example:** - A child understands that another person will feel sad if they believe an object is lost, even if it isn\'t. - Empathetic Response: The child may comfort and help the sad person understand the object is not lost. - Deceptive Response: The child might use this belief to play a trick on the person. - **The Sally-Anne Task** - The Sally-Anne experiment is a psychological test used to assess a child\'s understanding of theory of mind, specifically their ability to understand that others can hold beliefs different from their own. Here are the steps involved: - **Introduction of Characters:** The experiment introduces two dolls, Sally and Anne. Sally has a basket, and Anne has a box. - **Story Setup:** The experimenter narrates a story. Sally places a marble in her basket and then leaves the scene. - **Object Relocation:** While Sally is away, Anne takes the marble from Sally\'s basket and places it in her own box. - **Return of Sally:** Sally returns, and the experimenter asks the child where Sally will look for the marble. - **Nature vs Nurture** - As discussed in module 1 both nature and nurture have a role to play in a child\'s development of their theory of mind. - **Nature Component:** - **Maturational Threshold: **There are universal age thresholds at which children develop the capacity for theory of mind. This suggests a biological and maturational component to the development of theory of mind.  - **Nurture Component:** - **Variability Among Children:** Despite the universal threshold, there is significant variability in when children master theory of mind, influenced by environmental factors. - **Advanced Language Development: **Children with more advanced language skills tend to pass certain tasks assessing theory of mind development earlier. Language provides tools for understanding and discussing thoughts, beliefs, and emotions, aiding cognitive development.  - **Pretend Play: **Engaging in pretend play helps children practice and understand different perspectives, enhancing their social cognition and theory of mind development. - **Mental State Language:** Parents who frequently discuss emotions, thoughts, desires, and intentions with their children help them understand that others have minds. This use of \"mental state language\" accelerates the acquisition of theory of mind. - **Secure Parent-Child Relationships:** A secure relationship with parents provides a safe environment for children to explore and understand social interactions, promoting earlier theory of mind development. - **Influence of Older Siblings: **Having older siblings can expedite the development of theory of mind. In interactions involving disputes or misunderstandings, parents often explain the perspectives of the other child, helping the younger child understand different viewpoints. - This example clearly illustrates how a biological maturational process (nature) is influenced and shaped by social and environmental factors (nurture). The quality of the social and relational environment plays a crucial role in when and how effectively children develop an understanding of others\' minds. - Attachment Theory - **Lorenz's Work on Imprinting** - Ethologist Konrad Lorenz studied imprinting in birds, particularly geese. He discovered that goslings would follow and form an attachment to the first moving object they saw after hatching, often Lorenz himself. This process, known as imprinting, occurs during a critical period shortly after birth and illustrates the innate mechanisms of attachment in animals. Lorenz's work highlighted the biological basis of attachment and influenced subsequent research in human attachment by demonstrating the importance of early experiences and the timing of attachment formation. - **Bowlbys Theory of Attachment** - John Bowlby described attachment as a \"lasting psychological connectedness between human beings.\" He observed that all animals, including human infants, display behaviours soon after birth that help them achieve proximity to their caregiver for safety. Bowlby noted that caregivers also exhibit innate behaviours to keep their infants safe from threats and distress. He developed his theory of attachment by applying these observations to human infants and their caregivers. Bowlby argued that the attachment system comprises innate behaviours in children that elicit care from their parents, bringing the caregiver close to them for protection and safety. - While behavioural theories suggested that attachment was a learned process resulting from the feeding relationship between child and caregiver, Bowlby observed that feeding did not diminish separation anxiety. He found that attachment was characterized by clear behavioural and motivational patterns. When frightened, children seek proximity to their primary caregiver for comfort and care. Bowlby proposed that attachment is a product of evolutionary processes: children are born with an innate drive to form attachments with caregivers beyond nourishment, relating to comfort. Throughout history, children who maintained proximity to an attachment figure were more likely to receive comfort and protection, increasing their chances of survival to adulthood. This process of natural selection led to the emergence of a motivational system designed to regulate attachment. - **Mary Ainsworth Contributions** - Mary Ainsworth extended Bowlby's theory through detailed home observations, studying caregiving patterns that lead to individual differences in attachment behaviour. She observed that infants feel safe and engage in exploratory behaviour when their caregiver is present. When the caregiver leaves, the infant's attachment system is activated, and they seek proximity and physical contact with the caregiver. Once they achieve proximity, their attachment system is switched off, allowing them to resume play and exploration. Ainsworth\'s work highlighted the primary function of the attachment system: protection of the young. The child's attachment system is activated by threat, and the caregiver's system is activated by the child\'s attachment behaviours. - Safe Haven and Secure Base - Safe Haven: The safe haven function is the role the caregiver plays as a place the child can return to when upset, threatened, distressed, tired, or unwell. The caregiver needs to be predictably available to make the child feel safe. - Secure Base: The secure base function is that the caregiver provides a foundation from which the child can explore the world, developing independence and autonomy.  - **The Strange Situation Procedure** - Mary Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation Procedure to assess attachment behaviours in a laboratory setting. The procedure involves several episodes, including separations and reunions between the child and their caregiver, to activate the child's attachment system. Key assessment moments occur during reunions, where the child\'s behaviour towards the returning caregiver is closely observed. The child's proximity and contact-seeking behaviour, resistance, avoidance, and search behaviour are coded to classify their attachment style. - **Attachment Styles** - Based on the Strange Situation Procedure, children are categorised into three main attachment styles: - **Secure Attachment \[B\] (50 to 60%):** The child shows flexibility in moving between activating their attachment system and resuming exploration. They seek proximity and contact when threatened, are effectively comforted by the caregiver, and then reengage in exploration. - **Insecure Avoidant Attachment \[A\] (15-20%):** The child shows a tendency toward exploration at the expense of closeness. They may avoid contact with the caregiver even when their attachment system is activated, focusing almost exclusively on play. - **Insecure Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment \[C\] (15-20%):** The child is preoccupied with maintaining proximity to the caregiver at the expense of exploration and play. Their contact with the caregiver does not effectively switch off their attachment system, leading to ongoing anxiety and struggle between the parent and child. - **The Importance of Secure Attachment in Child Development** - Decades of research have demonstrated that secure attachment to a caregiver is crucial for a child\'s development, providing resilience and protection. Longitudinal studies reveal that securely attached children: - Have better peer relationships in middle childhood. - Exhibit more leadership qualities. - Show improved emotion regulation. - Relate better to their teachers. - A foundational study by Alan Sroufe and colleagues in Minneapolis followed infants from \"strange situation\" assessments into adulthood and parenthood, underscoring the importance of secure attachment for social and emotional development. - **Disorganised Attachment and Its Implications** - Subsequent studies (e.g., Thompson 2016, Fearon et al. 2017) identified an additional attachment classification known as disorganised attachment. This type of attachment can develop when a child\'s caregivers, who should be a source of safety, instead become a source of fear, often due to trauma, neglect, or abuse. Disorganised attachment is strongly associated with clinically significant problems later in development. - **Important Considerations in Understanding Attachment** - While discussing attachment, it is crucial to avoid oversimplification and acknowledge its complexities. Here are some key points to consider: - **1. Attachment as a Relationship Construct** - **Not a Child\'s Characteristic:** Attachment is not an inherent trait of the child but a characteristic of the caregiving relationship. - **Variability with Different Caregivers:** A child can be securely attached to one caregiver (e.g., mother) and insecurely attached to another (e.g., father). - **2. Influence of Changing Life Circumstances** - **Dynamic Nature of Attachment:** Early attachment classifications are significant but can change with alterations in the child\'s caregiving environment. - **Lifespan Changes:** Subsequent caregiving experiences can improve or worsen early attachment classifications. - **3. Challenges in Assessing Attachment in Older Children** - **Limitations of Traditional Methods:** The \"strange situation\" procedure, which involves separation to activate the attachment system, becomes less effective as children grow older. - **Alternative Assessment Methods:** - Storytelling Approaches: Using scenarios like overnight hospital stays or staying at someone else\'s house to understand the child\'s feelings about separation. - Drawing Techniques: Analyzing children\'s spontaneous representations of their relationships with their parents through their drawings. - **Influences on Individual Differences in Attachment** - Understanding how individual differences in attachment develop involves considering both nature and nurture. Here are the key points: - **1. Combination of Nature and Nurture** - **Parenting\'s Role:** Parenting significantly impacts attachment, shaping how secure or insecure a child feels with a caregiver. - **Infant\'s Contribution: **Infants also influence the parent-child relationship through their own characteristics and behaviors. - **2. Bidirectional Influence** - **Mutual Influence:** Development is not a one-way process. While parents influence their children, children also affect their caregiving environments through their temperament. - **Tailoring Parental Behaviour:** Effective parenting involves adjusting responses to match the child\'s unique temperament, addressing their specific strengths and vulnerabilities. - Parental Sensitivity - **Mary Ainsworth's Work on Secure Attachment** - Mary Ainsworth identified and described the construct of parental sensitivity through her observations of the precursors of secure attachment relationships. - **Key Characteristics of a Sensitive Parent** - **Noticing and Receiving Infant Signals** - Sensitive parents notice and receive the infant\'s signals and cues. - Example: If the infant signals the desire for proximity or contact, the parent notices this and takes it on board. - **Interpreting Cues Accurately** - Noticing the cue is not enough; accurate interpretation is essential. - The parent needs to understand the infant\'s signals correctly. - **Responding Appropriately** - Parents must respond promptly, flexibly, and appropriately to the infant\'s cues. - The response should be predictable and suitable to the infant\'s needs. - E.g. The Still Face Procedure - \"Always be bigger, stronger, wiser, and kind. Whenever possible follow the child's lead, whenever necessary take charge\" - Powell, Cooper, Hoffman & Marvin, 2014 - Baumrinds Parenting Styles - Diana Baumrind\'s theory of parenting styles, originally developed in 1971 and subsequently revised, remains influential in understanding the impact of different parenting approaches on child development. Baumrind identified three primary parenting styles, with a fourth added by Maccoby and Martin in 1983. - Authoritative: - **High Warmth, High Control ** - Authoritative parenting is characterized by high warmth and high control. This parenting style is often referred to as democratic control because it involves rules and regulations but also emphasizes perspective-taking and reasoned discipline. Parents using this style aim to communicate the rationale behind rules and regulations, ensuring the child understands and feels understood. - **Key Characteristics:** - **Warmth and Understanding: **Authoritative parents show warmth towards their children, communicating that they understand their perspectives. - **Reasoned Discipline:** Discipline is enforced with reason, helping children understand why certain rules are in place. - **Sensitivity:** This style aligns closely with the concept of parental sensitivity, which involves reading the child\'s cues, interpreting them correctly, and responding appropriately. - **According to Baumrind\'s theory, authoritative parenting is considered the optimal style.** - Authoritarian - **Low Warmth, High Control** - Authoritarian parenting is characterized by high control but low warmth. This parenting style is more about enforcing rules without much explanation or warmth, which can be perceived as harsh and even abusive by the child. - **Key Characteristics:** - **High Control: **Authoritarian parents implement strict control and regulation. - **Low Warmth:** There is little warmth or emotional support offered to the child. - **Lack of Explanation:** Rules are enforced without explaining the reasons behind them, often justified with \"because I\'m the boss\" or \"I\'m the adult.\" - **Potential Consequences:** - **Harsh Experience: **The approach can be harsh, leading to negative emotional impacts on the child. - **Lack of Understanding:** Children may conform to rules but do not understand their importance or rationale. - **Oppositional Responses:** This style can lead to oppositional behavior from children as they react negatively to the lack of warmth and explanation. - Permissive - **High Warmth, Low Control** - Permissive parenting is characterized by high warmth but low control. This parenting style involves a close, affectionate relationship between parent and child, resembling a peer relationship more than a traditional parent-child dynamic. - **Key Characteristics:** - **High Warmth: **Permissive parents share a very close and affectionate relationship with their children. - **Low Control:** There are few rules and regulations, and little discipline is enforced. - **Peer-like Relationship:** The relationship can often feel more like that between peers than between parent and child. - **Potential Consequences:** - **Lack of Structure: **The absence of rules and regulations can lead to a lack of necessary structure for the child\'s development. - **Developmental Needs:** Children may miss out on important developmental lessons that come from understanding and following rules. - Uninvolved (Maccoby & Martin, 1983) - **Low Warmth, Low Control** - Uninvolved parenting, introduced by Maccoby and Martin in 1983, is characterized by low warmth and low control. This style is often referred to as neglectful and is considered the most problematic from the child\'s point of view. - **Key Characteristics:** - Low Warmth: Uninvolved parents are emotionally detached and unengaged with their children. - Low Control: There is a lack of monitoring and regulation of the child\'s behavior. - Neglect: This style is often described as neglectful due to the absence of both warmth and control. - **Potential Consequences:** - Worst-Case Scenario: From the child\'s perspective, this is the worst parenting style as it combines neglect in both emotional and behavioral aspects. - Lack of Guidance: Children lack the necessary warmth and structure, which are crucial for healthy development. - Limitations of Baumrind's Approach - Oversimplified way of looking at parent-child relationships - Baumrind's work was only done on white middle class families so doesn't consider implications across cultures. - Beyond the mother-child - Developmental psychology has historically been overly focused on the mother-child dyad. The field has been dominated by hetero-normative and gender-normative perspectives. Among other things, the increased workforce participation by women has led to various other caregiving arrangements including: - Greater involvement of fathers in childrearing. - Childcare - Research at Macquarie University, especially from the Early Childhood Education Centre, has influenced childcare standards in Australia. - Grandparents or other family members. - The role of other adult-child relationships including teachers, coaches, and mentors is also a crucial consideration. And then there is the child\'s evolving cognitive development. As children grow, they represent their parents mentally and rely less on physical closeness. Relationships with peers become more important during school years. - **A Probing Look at the Role of the \"Father\"** - Fathers have been historically neglected in developmental research. - Early studies primarily focused on the impact of father absence on children, highlighting risks associated with single-parent families. - Risks are often related to complex socioeconomic factors, such as: - Younger teenage mothers. - Financial stress due to lack of workforce participation by the mother and no financial contribution from the father. - **Contributions of Present Fathers:** - Focus should also be on the positive contributions fathers make when they are present. - Evidence shows fathers play a crucial role in their children\'s development, particularly through: - Sensitive Parenting: Similar to mothers, fathers\' ability to notice, interpret, and respond to their children\'s cues appropriately is essential. - Unique Contributions: Fathers often engage in different types of play, such as physical play and risk-taking activities, which aid in: - Developing self-regulation in children. - Encouraging risk-taking behavior in safe environments, which is beneficial for regulatory capacities. - Same Sex Parenthood - Negative presumptions about family structures need to be carefully examined and challenged. - Research supports that children from same-sex parented families experience emotional, social, and educational outcomes comparable to those from opposite-sex parented families (see Dempsey, 2013 for a review). - Australian Study (Crouch, Waters, McNair, Power, & Davis, 2014): Involving 500 children of same-sex parents, found comparable results on measures of child health and wellbeing. - **Main Issue: Stigma remains a significant challenge** - **Expanding the Research Field:** - The study of diverse family structures and their impact on child development is still emerging. - Developmental psychology must build an inclusive understanding of child development influences, including gender-diverse parents. - Eriksons Theory of Psychosocial Development - Eriksons 8 Stages of Human Development: - Infancy: Trust vs Mistrust -- Developing general security optimism, and trust in others - Toddlerhood: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt -- Developing a sense of independence and confident self-reliance, taking setbacks in stride - Early Childhood: Initiative vs Guilt -- Developing initiative in exploring and manipulating the environment - Middle Childhood: Industry vs Inferiority -- Enjoyment and mastery of the developmental tasks of childhood, in and out of school - Adolescence: Identity vs Role confusion -- achievement of a stable and satisfying sense of role and direction - Young adulthood: Intimacy vs Isolation -- Development of the ability to maintain intimate personal relationships - Adulthood: Generativity versus stagnation - Satisfaction of personal and familial needs supplemented by development of interest in the welfare of others and the world in general - Ageing: Ego integrity versus despair - Recognising and adjusting to ageing and the prospect of death with a sense of satisfaction about the future - Adolescent Development - **The Evolution and Impact of Teenagers** - **A Developmental Perspective** - **Historical Context** - **1950s**: Teenagers first identified as a distinct age group. - **High School**: The grouping of young adults together. - **1960s**: Teenagers became a prominent social force due to significant events like the Vietnam War, civil rights movements, and cultural changes. - **21st Century**: The concept of \"adultescence\" emerged, extending adolescence into the 20s and 30s due to delayed adult milestones. - **Demographic and Developmental Factors** - **Delayed Adult Milestones**: Many young people now reach traditional adult milestones (e.g., financial independence, long-term relationships) closer to age 30. - **Emerging Adulthood**: Jeffrey Arnett defined a new developmental period from ages 18 to 25, marked by increasing independence and responsibility. - **Biological Changes** - **Hormonal Changes**: Adolescents experience significant hormonal shifts, including the development of secondary sexual characteristics and the onset of menarche (females) and spermarche (males). - **Environmental Influences**: The timing of puberty can be influenced by genetics, health, and nutrition. - **Psychological Changes** - **Identity Formation**: According to Erik Erikson, the key task for adolescents is forming a separate, autonomous identity. - **Cognitive Development**: Jean Piaget's \"formal operations\" stage involves abstract reasoning and symbolic thinking, but limited impulse control due to immature frontal lobes. - **Social Changes** - **Peer Influence**: Adolescence is marked by the central role of peers and the beginning of romantic relationships. - **Vulnerability**: This period is psychologically and emotionally significant, often involving an identity crisis. - **Erikson's Identity vs. Role Confusion** - **Identity Crisis**: Adolescents may feel confused about their sense of self and future goals. - **Literary Example**: Holden Caulfield in J.D. Salinger's \"The Catcher in the Rye\" embodies this struggle. - **Developmental Milestones**: Erikson believed resolving the identity crisis is essential for progressing to the next developmental stage: young adulthood. - Adulthood - **Understanding Adult Transitions** - **Key Milestones and Their Impact** - **Adult Development Transitions:** - **Focus**: Understanding development through key life milestones rather than age. - **Milestones**: Significant events marking different phases of adult life. - **Key Milestones and Transitions:** - **Leaving the Parental Home:** Starting life as an independent individual, managing finances, and self-care. - **Marriage or Living Alone:** Entering a long-term relationship or choosing to live independently. - **Parenthood:** Transition to having children, though increasingly many choose a childless life. - **Empty Nest: **Adjusting to life after children leave home. - **Midlife Assessment: **Reevaluating goals and achievements, often leading to career changes or other major life decisions. - **Retirement:** Ceasing full-time work, though retirement age is increasingly flexible due to economic and social factors. - **Loss of Partner: **Adapting to widowhood or the loss of a life partner. - **Dying:** The final transition of life. - **Non-Events:** - **Impact: **Non-events, such as not having children or not achieving a desired job, can significantly affect life trajectories and personal development. - **Transitions and Timing:** - **Typicality and Timing:** The significance of these milestones often depends on their timing and typicality within societal norms, rather than the events themselves being crises. - **Understanding the Typicality and Timing of Major Life Events** - **Normative Life Events** - **On-time Events:** Occur at a typical, expected point in life (e.g., puberty, leaving school, retirement). - **Off-time Events:** Occur at a non-typical, unexpected point in life (e.g., early widowhood, teenage pregnancy). - **Non-normative Life Events** - **Definition**: Unusual, unexpected events that not everyone experiences (e.g., winning a lottery, major accidents). - **Societal Impact on Development** - Society influences the typicality and timing of events, affecting how adults integrate these events into their lives. - **On-time Normative Events:** Easier integration, more positive outcomes. - **Off-time or Non-normative Events: **More challenging integration, potentially more stressful. - **Examples of Changing Norms** - **University Enrollment:** Once typical at 18, now common at various ages. - **Marriage**: Typical in late 20s to early 30s today; previously in early 20s or late teens. - **Parenthood**: Average age for first childbirth now in early 30s; previously much younger. - **Cultural and Historical Variability** - **Normative Timing:** Culturally and historically determined, varying greatly across different generations and societies. - **Generational Differences: **Baby boomers, Gen X, digital natives, and COVID cohorts have distinct experiences and norms. - **Stressful Life Events** - **Off-time and Non-normative Events: **Particularly stressful due to lack of preparation and social support. - **Examples**: Early widowhood, unexpected job loss, serious illness. - **Failure of Expected Events:** Can be equally stressful (e.g., infertility, not getting married). - **Adaptation Challenges** - Off-time and non-normative events often require significant adaptation without preparation, leading to increased stress. - Ageing - **Changing Perceptions and Demographics of Old Age** - **Changing Perceptions: **What it means to be \"old\" has shifted dramatically over time and continues to evolve. - **Life Expectancy: **Significant increases in life expectancy over the past 50 years mean people are living longer than ever before. - **Current Challenges and Opportunities:** - **Aged Care Crisis: **The growing number of older Australians needing care has led to a current aged care crisis that society and government must address. - **Adapting Society: **As the population ages, there is a need to adapt and provide adequate care environments for the elderly. - **Implications**: - **Social Organization: **The significant increase in lifespan poses major challenges for how society organizes and provides for its aging population. - **Care Environment Needs: **The rising numbers of elderly people highlight the urgent need for evolving and improving care environments. - **Development: A Multifaceted Journey** - Development is a complex process, encompassing both gains and losses as we age. This journey is multidimensional and multidirectional. - **Biological Losses:** - **Fertility**: Decreases with age. - **Sensory Acuity: **Visual and hearing abilities decline, often requiring aids like glasses. - **Physical Capacity:** Lung capacity and physical prowess diminish, impacting activities and sports performance. - **Cognitive Speed**: Slower information processing and response times. - **Psychological Gains:** - **Crystallized Intelligence: **Accumulated knowledge and experience grow, enhancing problem-solving abilities. - **Wisdom**: Increased life experience contributes to greater wisdom, aligning with Erikson\'s final developmental task: \"ego integrity versus despair.\" - **Resilience**: Enhanced hardiness and adaptability to life\'s challenges. - **Financial Security:** Many achieve financial stability, though it\'s not universal. - **The Theory of Selective Optimization with Compensation (Baltes): Paul Baltes highlights that successful aging involves optimizing strengths and compensating for losses. This adaptive strategy is crucial for maintaining quality of life as we age.** - Ageism - **Definition:** - The systematic stereotyping and discrimination against people because they are old (Butler, 1969, p22). - **Levels of Ageism:** - **Institutional Level: **Discriminatory practices embedded in societal institutions. - **Individual Level: **Personal biases and discriminatory actions. - **Mechanisms of Ageism:** - **Stereotypes and Myths:** Unfounded beliefs about older adults (e.g., grumpiness, disinterest in current affairs or relationships). - **Disdain and Dislike:** Negative attitudes towards older people. - **Avoidance of Contact:** Segregation of older adults in housing and social settings. - **Discriminatory Practices:** Biases in housing, employment, and other areas. - **Impact of Ageism:** - **Myths:** Many misconceptions about older adults stem from ageist views. - **Segregation**: Older adults often live separately in aged care facilities, reducing intergenerational contact. - **Employment Discrimination:** Older workers face biases in hiring and employment practices. - **Complexity of Age and Ageing:** - Age and ageing are influenced by socio-demographic variables, cultural expectations, and lifestyle factors. - Ageism is comparable to other forms of discrimination like sexism and racism, requiring societal change to address and combat it. - **Addressing Ageism:** - Respect and Inclusiveness: Society must integrate and respect older adults, providing inclusive environments. - Quality Aged Care: Enhancing aged care services to ensure dignity and well-being for older adults. - A First Nations Perspective - **Impact of Racial Inequality: \"Closing the Gap\" Report 2020** - **\"Closing the gap\" was an initiative the Australian government began in the early part of the 21st century to reduce the inequities between First Nations people and non-Indigenous Australians. ** - **Life Expectancy (2015-2017 data):** - Non-Indigenous Male: 80.2 years - Indigenous Male: 71.6 years - Non-Indigenous Female: 83.4 years - Indigenous Female: 75.6 years - **Key Facts:** - 65% of Indigenous Australians die before age 65, compared to 19% of non-Indigenous Australians. - Life expectancy is influenced by health and social determinants such as education, employment, housing, and income. - **Closing the Gap Initiative:** - **Purpose**: Reduce inequities between First Nations people and non-Indigenous Australians. - **Current Status: **Significant gaps remain in life expectancy and health outcomes. - **Government Efforts: **New targets set in collaboration with Indigenous Australians to improve outcomes. - **\"A Good Life\": Indicators of Quality of Life for Older Indigenous Australians** - **Research Initiative (Smith et al., 2021):** - **Objective**: Develop a tool and framework for assessing quality of life among older Indigenous Australians. - **Study Participants: **Aboriginal Australians aged over 45. - **Findings**: - Preferred Term: Researchers found that First Nations participants \"A Good Life\" instead of \"Quality of Life.\" - **Key Elements of a Good Life:** - **Good Spirit: **Central to wellbeing, supported by familial and social relationships, health, respect, and elder roles. - **Connection to Culture, Country, and Spirituality: **Fundamental to wellbeing. - **Community and Services:** Availability of services and supports, sense of safety, meeting basic needs, and future plans. - **Implications**: - **Service Provision: **Integrating these factors can help provide \"a good life\" for older Aboriginal people. - **The Critical Role of Older Indigenous Australians in Culture and Community: An Opportunity for Learning** - Views towards older adults vary according to society and culture. This means the degree of veneration and respect for older members of a community also differs markedly and is an undeniable influence on approaches to aged care and the integration of older persons in the community. - Among First Nations people and communities, Elders play an integral role.  A comprehensive review of these varied social and cultural roles played by older Indigenous Australians within their communities was conducted by Jeni Warburton and Briana Chambers in 2007. Their probing insights offer a strengths-based outlook beyond the usual narrative of significant health and social problems First Nations people face, whilst still acknowledging the importance that the present-day roles of older Aboriginal Australians within the society are essentially understood against a backdrop of lifetime disadvantage. Further, their review offers enhanced perspectives on the incredibly rich contributions that older members of our society have the potential to offer, and from which non-Indigenous cultures can learn.  These include the critical role older First Nations Australians play in kinship relationships, offering support for the young, the transmission of cultural knowledge, and the key concept of respect for older people as 'survivors', accentuated by lifetimes of struggle in the fight for survival for their people and culture. - **Cultural Perspectives on Older Adults:** - **Varied Views:** Different societies and cultures hold varying degrees of respect for older members, impacting approaches to aged care and community integration. - **Role of Elders in First Nations Communities:** - Integral Role: Elders are central to First Nations communities, playing key social and cultural roles. - **Research Insights:** - **Comprehensive Review:** Jeni Warburton and Briana Chambers (2007) explored the roles of older Indigenous Australians, providing a strengths-based perspective. - **Acknowledge Challenges:** While recognizing health and social issues faced by First Nations people, the review highlights the significant contributions of older Aboriginal Australians. - **Key Contributions of Older Indigenous Australians:** - **Kinship Relationships:** Providing support and guidance to younger generations. - **Cultural Transmission: **Passing down cultural knowledge and traditions. - **Respect as Survivors: **Honoring the resilience and lifelong struggles of older community members in preserving their culture. - **Learning from First Nations Cultures:** - **Enhanced Perspectives:** Non-Indigenous cultures can learn from the rich contributions and roles of older First Nations Australians, particularly in the areas of kinship, cultural transmission, and respect for elders. **Health Psychology Lectures** - **Introduction to Health Psychology** - Definition and Scope of Health Psychology - Health Psychology: The understanding of psychological influences on how people stay healthy, why they become ill, and how they respond or cope with ill health. - Bi-Directional Relationship: The interaction between psychological processes (thoughts, feelings, attitudes, beliefs, motivations) and physical health. - Key Areas of Focus - Illness Development: Investigating psychological reasons, causes, and factors predicting or explaining the onset of ill health. - Staying Healthy: Understanding behavior change to maintain health, addressing psychological barriers to engaging in healthy practices. - Psychological Impact of Illness - Chronic Illness: Understanding the significant impact of chronic illness on personal wellbeing and relationships. - Support and Management: Improving support for people going through illness by better understanding psychological impacts. - Treatment of Illness - Interdisciplinary Approaches: Combining biological or medical treatments with psychological and social support. - Bio-Psychosocial Model: Using the intersection of biology, psychology, and social factors to understand and treat illness. - Applied Psychology in Health - Perception: How individuals feel their body and perceive pain. - Social Psychology: Group behavior change, relationship impacts due to illness. - Personality: Individual differences in coping and perceiving stress. - Clinical Psychology: Intersection of physical health and mental health. - Neuropsychology and Cognitive Psychology: Brain structure and function, cognitive processes. - Comprehensive Understanding - Health psychology integrates various psychology areas to understand and improve the body\'s functioning. - Hippocrates and the Humoral Theory  - The body contains four humors (fluids) that must be balanced for good health.  - Imbalances in these humors lead to ill health.  - Diet and exercise were early methods to maintain this balance.  - The theory also linked humors to personality traits.  - Plato and Duality  - Emphasized the separation of the mind and the body.  - The mind was thought to have no impact on the body.  - Galen\'s Contributions  - Identified specific parts of the body where illnesses were located.  - Continued belief in humoral theory and mind-body separation.  - Dissected animals to understand body systems and diseases.  - The Middle Ages  - Stagnation in scientific progress due to religious control.  - Illness was seen as divine punishment, and intervention was frowned upon.  - The Renaissance and Descartes  - A period of significant advancement in multiple fields, including medicine.  - Descartes viewed the body as a machine and introduced the concept of mind-body communication through the brain.  - Shift from a religious to a medical focus in understanding health.  - Allowed for autopsies and deeper exploration of the body\'s functions.  - 18th and 19th Century Advances  - Technological and scientific progress in understanding physiology and medicine.  - Further exploration of the mind-body connection, particularly through the nervous system and the pineal gland. - Understanding Pain: - Descartes\' diagram from 1664 significantly contributed to the understanding of pain. - Pain does not exist in the body but is a function of the brain and psychological processes. - The body picks up sensations or stimulations that result in the experience of pain. - Descartes\' Diagram Explanation: - The diagram illustrates the process starting with a stimulation (e.g., heat from a fire) causing a reaction in the foot. - This reaction sends particles into the foot, believed to pull a thread up through the body to the brain. - The thread opens a pore in the brain, releasing the spirit of that thread into the brain. - The brain then sends a response back through the connecting point to the leg to pull it away from the fire. - Nervous System Function: - The process described in Descartes\' diagram is similar to the functioning of the nervous system. - Nerves throughout the body pick up sensations and travel through the spine to the brain. - The brain processes this information and generates reactions and responses. - Historical Context: - The idea presented by Descartes in 1664 was a significant milestone in understanding the human body\'s response to pain. - Wellness Models - Conceptualizations of Health and Wellness  - Biomedical Model:  - Focuses on physical and biological causes of disease.  - Defines health as the absence of disease.  - Does not consider positive aspects of health. - Illness-Wellness Continuum:  - Wellness is more than just the absence of disease.  - Includes positive, beneficial experiences.  - Defines good health as experiencing more than just the absence of illness. - Bio-Psychosocial Model:  - Considers biological, psychological, and social factors.  - These factors interrelate and contribute to health and illness.  - Advocates understanding all three factors to comprehend and treat health issues properly. - Stress - **Definition of Stress ** - Stress is subjective and depends on internal interpretation and experience.  - Stress does not exist externally; it exists within us.  - **Stress Response vs. Stressor ** - Stress Response: The internal tension, discomfort, and symptoms following a stressor.  - Stressor: The external event or situation that triggers the stress response.  - e.g. yelling, car accidents, or relationship breakdowns. - **Stress as a Process ** - Stress is an ongoing process,