Fundamentals of Horticulture PDF

Course No : H/FS- 111 Credit: 2+1=3 Semester-I Course title: Fundamentals of Horticulture Name of course Teacher : Dr. Y.S. Jadhav M. Sc.(Agri), P.hD.(Agri), NET Designation : Vice-Princip...

Course No : H/FS- 111 Credit: 2+1=3 Semester-I Course title: Fundamentals of Horticulture Name of course Teacher : Dr. Y.S. Jadhav M. Sc.(Agri), P.hD.(Agri), NET Designation : Vice-Principal, Bharati Vidyapeeth’s, College of Horticulture, Kadegaon, Dist. Sangli Suggested Readings: Sr. No Title of Book Authors 1 Fruit Culture in India Sham Singh and others 2 Handbook of Horticulture ICAR Publication 3 Principles of Horticulture and fruit growing Kunte and Yawalkar 4 Production Technology of Fruit Crops Shanmugvelu, K.G. 1. Horticulture - definition and branches The term Horticulture first appeared in written language in the 17th century. In English, Horticulture was first mentioned by E. Phillips in London, 1678. The word horticulture is derived from the Latin word “Hortus” meaning garden and “Culture” means cultivation. Thus horticulture is concerned with cultivation of garden crops. Garden crops traditionally include fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants, spices, plantation crops, medicinal and aromatic plants etc. “Horticulture is the branch of science which deals with the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamental crops, plantation crops, spices and condiments, medicinal and aromatic plants and mushroom production”. Branches of Horticulture: Horticulture is divided into following branches, 1) Pomology /Fruit science:- The pomology term is derived from The Latin word pomus meaning “Fruit” and the greak word logy meaning science. “Pomology is the branch of horticulture which deals with the cultivation of fruit crops”. eg. Mango, banana, grapes, pomegranate etc. 2) Olericulture/ Vegetable Science:- This term is derived from the Latin word Oleris means Pot herbs and English word culture means cultivation of succulent vegetables. So olericulture means pot herb cultivation. “Olericulture is the branch of horticulture which deals with the cultivation of vegetable crops”. eg. Brinjal, okra, tomato, chilli etc. 3) Floriculture:- It is derived from the two words Florus means flower and culture means cultivation. So floriculture means study of flower and ornamental foliage plants. “Floriculture is the branch of horticulture which deals with the cultivation of flower and ornamental foliage plants”.eg. Rose, gerbera, carnation etc. Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in 4) Fruit and Vegetable preservation: - It is the branch of horticulture which deals with the principles and practices of post harvest handling and preservation of horticultural produce. 5) Ornamental Horticulture:- It is the branch of horticulture which deals with growing of ornamental foliage and flowering trees, shrubs, climber, seasonal flowers, cacti, indoor and outdoor plants. 6)Landscape gardening and ornamentals:-It is the branch of horticulture which deals with beautifying the piece of land, ornamental gardens and parks by using ornamental and flowering plants for pleasure and fashion purpose. 7) Arboriculture: - This is the branch of horticulture which deals with the cultivation of plants for aesthetic, educational and scientific purpose. 8) Plantation crops: - The branch of horticulture which deals with cultivation of crops on large scale whose produce is used only after processing. E.g. Tea, Coffee, Cocoa, Cashew nut, Coconut, Rubber etc. 9) Spices and Condiments: - a) Spices: - The branch of horticultural science which deals with cultivation of crops whose produce is utilized mainly for seasoning and flavouring the food items. E.g. cardamom, clove, cinnamon etc. b) Condiments: - condiments are the plant products which provide aroma, flavor and taste to the foodstuffs and they have low nutritive value. E.g. Coriander, cumin. 10) Medicinal and aromatic plants: - a) Medicinal plants: - The branch of horticulture which deals with the cultivation of medicinal plants which are rich source of alkaloids and steroids having prophylactic and curative properties for treatment in several diseases and are used in pharmaceutical industries for preparing medicine. eg. Opium, Chichona, Senna, Sarpagandha, Ashwagandha, Tulsi etc. b) Aromatic plants: - aromatic plants are the plants which provide essential oils which are great demand in cosmetics and perfumery industries. eg. Lemon grass, citronella, geranium, davana etc. 11) Nursery and seed production: - It deals with the production of seeds and planting material of horticultural crops on commercial scale. 12) Mushrooms cultivation: - This branch deals with the cultivation of edible mushrooms which are rich in protein e.g. White button mushroom. Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in  1.1 Importance of Horticulture Importance of Horticulture:- The horticulture has great importance to mankind are as follows. A) Nutritional importance:-Fruits and vegetables are rich sources of following nutrients, 2. Vitamins i) Vitamins A (Beta carotene):- Disorders: Night blindness, drying up tear glands of eyes, eruption of skin, brittleness of teeth and susceptibility to many diseases and disorders. Rich sources: Mango, Papaya, Jackfruit, Fig, Ber, Cashew nut and Persimon. ii) Vitamin B1 (Thiamin): Disorders: Beri-Beri, loss of sensitivity of skin, paralysis, loss of appetite, loss of weight and fall in body temperature. Rich Sources:-Cashew nut, Banana, Apple, Apricot, Almond etc. iii) Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin):- Disorders: Sore throat, loss of body weight and swollen nose. Rich source: - Papaya, bael, Pomegranate, Pineapple, Litchi, Peach etc. iv) Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid):- Essential for formation of normal teeth and bones and play significant role in assimilation of proteins. Disorders: - Scurvy, pain in the joints and swelling of limbs and bleeding of gums, tooth decay. Rich sources: - Aonla, Guava, Ber, Citrus, Pineapple, Strawberry etc. 3. Minerals Human body requires minerals like phosphorous, calcium, iron and iodine etc for maintaining good health. i) Phosphorous: - It is essential for maintaining the moisture content of tissues and for development of bones. Rich sources:- Guava, grape, Jackfruit, Passion fruit, Orange etc. ii) Calcium: - It is essential for development of bones, regulation of functioning of heart and blood clotting. Rich sources: Acid lime, orange, fig, dried apricots, wood apple etc. iii) Iron: - It is required for production of haemoglobin and it is constituent of red blood corpuscles. Its deficiency causes anaemia, smooth tongue, pale lips, eyes and skin and frequent exhaustion. Rich sources: - Custard apple, guava, pineapple, strawberry, grape black currents, Dried dates etc. 2) Proteins: - These are the body building foods and are essential for growth of body. The deficiency of proteins in the body causes retarded growth and increases susceptibility to diseases and cause lethargy. Rich sources: - Guava and Banana. 3) Enzymes: - These are required for controlling several metabolic activities in the body. Rich sources: - Papaya and pineapple 4) Fiber and roughages (Cellulose and pectin):- These are required for digestion and prevent constipation. Rich sources:- Guava and aonla 5) Carbohydrates (Energy foods):- Fruits contains carbohydrates and fats which supply energy to human body. Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in Rich sources: - Banana, Dates, Apple and nut fruits like Walnut, cashew nut and Almond etc. B) Economic importance:- i) High returns per unit area:- Returns per unit area are very high for Horticultural crop as compared with the agronomical crops e.g. Agronomical crops wheat 5000 kg/ha, Bajara 2500kg/ha, while horticultural crops, grape 20,000 kg/ha, Banana- 40,000 kg/ha.etc. ii) Acts as bed rock for many agro- industries:- Horticultural crops provide raw material to many industries. E.g. Fruit processing industry, Canning industry, Pickle industry, Papain extraction and Cashew nut processing industry etc. iii) Provides employment around the year: - Agronomical crops are seasonal in nature and hence they can provide seasonal employment while horticultural crops are perennial in nature and require intensive care throughout the year. Hence, we can provide employment throughout the year. iv) Source of income throughout the year: - Most of fruits and Vegetables are annual and biennial which are harvested within a short period and gives higher returns while some fruits and vegetables which can give yield throughout the year. v) Better utilization of inputs: - The inputs like land, labour and other inputs can be utilized efficiently as compared to agronomical crops. vi) No recurring expenditure for every year towards planting material and layout:- The horticultural crops are long lived, once planted they remains year together and does not require expenditure on inputs for every year. vii) Better utilization of barren land:-Lot of waste land/barren land/dry land is available in India, that land can be efficiently utilized by growing many fruit crops eg. Ber, Aonla, Tamarind, custard apple, Jamun, wood apple, Karonda, Jackfruits etc. viii) Better foreign exchange:- The horticultural crops have huge potential for earning valuable foreign exchange as compared to agronomic crops. There is a good demand for pomegranate, Mango, cashew nut etc. In foreign markets and fetches better foreign exchange. C) Social and religious importance: - The horticultural crops have a great social importance. i) The crops like coconut, Arecanut, various kinds of flowers, betelvine are used in various religious functions and pooja ceremony. ii) The fruits like bael offered to the lord Shiva and Mango leaves used for Toran. iii) Fruits trees help in checking soil erosion. iv) Improves rainfall condition and micro- climatic conditions. v) It also helps to reduce the environmental pollution. vi) Maintain ecological balance. vii) Solve the problem of unemployment. D) Medicinal importance: - The crop like Karonda, Aonla, Jamun etc which passes medicinal properties to control certain diseases etc. Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in  Horticultural and Botanical classification of horticultural crops a) Classification: - Classification is a system of placing an individual or a number in various categories according to particular plan which is in conformity with the nomenclature. b) OR Classifications of plants means the grouping of different plants have some characteristics in common. c) Purpose of Classification: - a) For easy and quick cultural operation. b) For breeding purpose and to evolve new verities. c) For facilitating propagation of crops. d) For effective control of pests & diseases. e) For cultivating crops suitable to different climatic condition. Classification of horticultural crops/Basis/Criteria for classification: d) 1) Classification on the basis of duration of life/life span The horticultural crops can be classified as annual, biennials and perennials. a) Annuals:- Plants which complete their life cycle in a one season or in one year are called as annuals. e.g. Tomato, brinjal and marigold 2. Biennials:- A plants which complete their life cycle in two season or two year are known as biennials e.g onion, cabbage and tuberose. 3.Perennials:- Plants which require more than two season to complete their life cycle are called as perennials. The perennials necessarily do not die after flowering. Perennials are classified on following types a)Woody perennials:- These plants have hard and fibrous trunk and branches e.g. Apple, citrus, mango, guava b)Herbaceous perennials:- These plants have soft succulent stem e.g. Banana, chrysanthemum and pointed gourd. e) 2) Classification based on climatic requirements Horticultural crops are classified into three groups on the basis of tolerance to temperature. a) Temperate horticultural crops:- In temperate regions, the temperature in winter season on falls below the freezing point. The crops shed their leaves and go into rest. These chilling temperatures help the plants to put forth new growth. Flowering and fruiting starts with the onset of spring season. e.g. Fruit : - Apple, Pear, Almond, Walnut Spices : - Saffron, Kalahari, Asafetida Vegetables: - Cabbage, cauliflower, European varieties of Carrot and Radish. Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in b) Subtropical horticultural crops:-In subtropical climate the summer are hot and dry and winters are less mild. e.g. Fruits:-citrus, Guava, Pomegranate, fig Spices:- Turmeric, ginger, onion and garlic Vegetables:- Tomato, Brinjal, chilly, Potato, Okra, Leafy vegetables c) Tropical horticultural crops:- The climatic conditions in such areas are hot and humid in summer and mild in winter. e.g. Fruits: - Mango, Banana, Pineapple, Sapota Spices: - Black pepper, Turmeric, Ginger and Clove. Plantation crops: - Coconut, Arecanut, Cocoa and Coffee Vegetables: - Tomato, Brinjal, Chilly, Onion and Cucurbits Based on tolerance to the relative humidity of atmosphere the fruits plants can be classified as under. a)Arid region fruit crops:- Low humidity, high temperature and intense radiation are the characteristics climatic conditions E.g. Fruit: - Ber, Annona, Date palm Vegetables:- Cowpea, Cluster bean. b)Semi arid fruits crops:- Those fruit crops exhibits low and erratic rainfall, low humidity and high temperatures. Fruits of arid region can be grown in this region also e.g. Mangosteen and litchi. f) 3) Classification based on growth habit and physiological characters a) Trees: - Trees are the plants which have a distinct stem or trunk which may be woody or herbaceous. i) Woody trees: - These plants have hard and fibrous trunk and branches E.g. Apple, Citrus, Mango, Guava ii) Herbaceous trees: - These have soft succulent stems a) Herbaceous trees (Upright growth):- e.g. Banana, Pineapple b) Herbaceous trees (Prostrate growth):- Strawberry b) Shrubs/ bushes: - “Group of woody plants, smaller than trees, 0.5-4.5m in height which have tendency to produce large number of branches/shoots from base.” e.g. Fruits: - Pomegranate, Ornamental shrubs: - Acalypha, croton etc c) Climbers: -“Climbers are the plants having weak stem and they grow vertically over a support by using specialized organs like thorns, tendrils and rootlets E,g thorns- Bougainvillea, tendrils –Bignonia, rootlets –Ficus repens Fruits: - Grape, passion fruits, Spices:- Black pepper d) Creepers: - Creepers are the plants having weak stem and they are unable to climb Vertically on their own. E.g. Railway Creeper, Rangoon Creeper. Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in g) 4) Classification on the basis of plant parts used for consumption a) Fruits Sr. no Name of Type of fruit Edible parts fruits/Examples 1 Apple Pome Fleshy thalamus 2 Pomegranate Pome Aril 3 Banana Berry Meso carp and endocarp 4 Grape Berry Pericarp and placenta 5 Guava Berry Thalamus and pericarp 6 Papaya Berry Mesocarp 7 Cashew nut Nut Peduncle and cotyledon 8 Coconut Fibrous drupe Endosperm 9 Custard apple Etario of berries Fleshy pericarp of individual berries 10 Fig Syconus Flashy receptacle 11 Mango Drupe Meso carp 12 Orange Hesperidium Juicy placental hair 13 Pineapple sorosis Fleshy thalamus h) b) Vegetables Sr. no Name of vegetables Edible parts 1 Raddish, carrot, turnip, sweet potato Roots 2 Knolkhol, potato, Stem 3 Palak, methi, amranthus Leaf 4 Cauliflower, broccoli Flower 5 Tomato, brinjal, okra, cucurbits Fruits 6 Beans and Pea Pod 7 Onion Bulb i) c) Plantation crops and spices Sr. no Name of fruits Edible parts 1 Coconut ( fibrous drupe) Endosperm 2 Arecanut( One seeded drupe) Seed( Fresh and dried) 3 Cocoa ( 5- ribbed drupe) Beans( seed) 4 Coffee ( fleshy drupe) Seed ( beans) 5 Black pepper ( one seeded spherical drupe) Dried wrinkled fruit 6 Clove ( Fleshy drupe) Unopened flower bud 7 Cinnamon ( fleshy drupe) Bark 8 Chilli( Berry) Fruit with seed 9 Turmeric Rhizome 10 Ginger( Capsule) Rhizome 11 Onion Leaves and bulb 12 garlic clove Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in j) 5) Classification on the basis of whether leaves are shed during the year k) Deciduous:- The plants that are leafless or which shed their leaves during winter are referred as deciduous. e.g. Apple, fig, grape l) Evergreen: - The plants whose leaves persist the year round or grows continuously all the year round are known as evergreen. The evergreen actually looses their leaves annually but not until a new set of leaves is developed. e.g. Coconut, banana, mango, sapota, areca nut. m) 6) Classification on the basis of longevity Plants can be classified on the basis of longevity as under Sr. longevity Life span crops No. 1 Very Long longevity More than100 Sweet chestnut, Walnut, years Datepalm, Coconut, Arecanut 2 Long longevity 50-100 years Mango, Tamarind 3 Medium longevity 10-50 years Litchi, Guava, Pomegranate 4 Short Less than 5 years Pineapple, Banana, strawberry n) 7) Classification of vegetables based on hardiness a) Hardy vegetables: - hardy vegetables are those which can endure frost injury e.g. Cabbage, Asparagus. b) Tender: - Vegetables are injured by ordinary frost e.g. tomato, cucurbits. o) 8) Classification of vegetables based on season of growth a) Kharif season: - Behendi, Chilli, Tomato, Cucurbits, Beans, Sweet potato, Brinjal and Radish b) Rabi season: - Cole crops, Potato, Onion, Radish, Carrot, Turnip, pea, Methi, Spinach, Beet. c) Summer season: - Gourd, Cucumber, Melons, Brinjal, Bhendi, Beans, Cucurbits. p) 9) Classification of vegetables on the basis of cultural requirements a) Perennials vegetables: - Drumstick, coccinea, pointed gourd, sesbania (agathi) b) Leafy vegetables: - Spinach, Fenugreek, Amaranthus c) Salad crops: - Lettuce d) Cole crops: - Cabbage, Cauliflower, Knolkhol e) Root crops: - Radish, Carrot, Beetroot, Turnip f) Bulb crops: - Onion, Garlic g) Tuber crops: - Potato, Sweet potato h) Fruit vegetables:- Tomato, Brinjal, Chilli g) Cucurbits: - Gourds, Melons, Pumpkin Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in  i) Pod vegetables: - Cow pea, Cluster bean, Indian bean, pea k) Other: - Okra. 10) Botanical classification based on botanical relationship with genomes: Angiosperms: Horticultural crops are classified on the basis of botanical relationship with genomes, family, genus, specie, variety, cultivar and strain. i) Botanical classification of fruits Sr. Comman name Botanical name Family No. Monocotyledanae 1 Banana Musa paradisiaca Musaceae 2 Pineapple Ananas comusus Bromeliaceae 3 Date palm Phoenix dactylifera Palmae Dicotyledanae 4 Mango Mangifera indica Anacardiaceae 5 Pistachionut Pistachia vera Anacardiaceae 6 Cashew Anacardium occidentalle Anacardiaceae 7 Custard apple Annona squamosa Annonaceae 8 Karonda Carissa carandus Apocyanaceae 9 Kiwi fruit Actinidia chinensis Actinidaceae 10 Guava Pisidium guajava Myrtaceae 11 Jack fruit Atrocarpus heterophyllus Moraceae 12 Fig Ficus carica Moraceae 13 Papaya Carica papaya Caricaceae 14 Aonla Emblica officinalis Euphorbiaceae 15 Mongosteen Garcinia mangostana Guttiferae 16 Avacado Perisa americana Lauraceae 17 Tamarind Tamarindus indica Leguminosae 18 Guava Psidium guajava Myrtaceae 19 Jamun Syzygium cumini Myrtaceae 20 Passion fruit Passiflora edulis Passifloraceae 21 Pomegranate Punica granatum Punicaceae 22 Ber Ziziphus jujuba Rhamnaceae 23 Loquat Eriobotrya japonica Rosaceae 24 Kagzi lime Citrus aurantifolia Rutaceae 25 Sweet orange Citrus sinensis Rutaceae 26 Mandarin Citrus reticulata Rutaceae 27 Rough lemon Citrus jambheri Rutaceae 28 Lemon Citrus limon Rutaceae 29 Bael Aegle marmelos Rutaceae 30 Wood apple Feronia limonica Rutaceae 31 Litchi Litchi chinensis Sapindaceae 32 Sapota (Achras zapota) Manilkara Sapotaceae 33 Phalsa Grewia subenaequalis Tiliaceae Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in  34 Grape Vitis vinifera Vitaceae 35 Apple Malus domestica Rosaceae ii) Botanical classification of plantation crops and spices A) Monocot i) Palmae- Coconut, Arecanut ii) Alliaceae- Onion, Garlic iii) Zingiberaceae- Turmeric, Ginger B) Dicot i) Lauraceae- Cinnamon ii) Myrtaceae- Clove iii) Piperaceae- Black pepper iv) Rubiaceae- Coffee v) Sterculiaceae- Cocoa iii) Botanical classification of vegetables a) Moncot i) Araceae – Colocasia ii) Alliaceae- Onion, Garlic iii) Dioscoreaceae- Yam b) Dicot i) Chenopodiaceae-Spinach ii) Crucifere-Cole Crops, Turnip, Radish iii) Leguminoceae: - Pea,Bbeans, Fenugreek iv) Euphorbiaceae- Tapioca v) Malvaceae: - Okra vi) Umbelliferae: - Carrot vii) Convolvulaceae: - Sweet Potato viii) Solanaceae: - Tomato, Brinjal, Chilli, Potato ix) Cucurbitaceae: - Gourds, Melons, Pumpkin x) Compositae:- Lettuce 4. Based on salt tolerance Tolerant Moderately tolerant Sensitive Date, Ber, Pomegranate, Fig, Orange, Lemon, Mango, Citrus, Apple, Aonla, Custard apple, Guava Grape fruit, Grape,Cashew Peach, Plum, Strawberry 5. Based on ripening behaviour/ rate of respiration Climacteric Fruits Non-climacteric Fruits (show sudden increase in rate of respiration after harvest ) (show steady rate of respiration after harvest) Mango, Banana, Sapota, Guava, Papaya, Citrus, Grape, Pomegranate, Pineapple, Litchi, Apple, Peach, Pear, Plum, Fig, Annona Ber, Jamun, Cashew, Cherry, Strawberry. 6. Based on bearing behaviour Bearing behaviour Terminal bearing Axillary bearing Mixed bearing Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in Bearing on new growth Loquat, Guava, aonla, sapota, jackfruit, bael, karonda, fig, phalsa, ber Citrus pecannut Bearing on old growth Mango, litchi Apple, peach, pear, plum, tamarind 7. Based on Photoperiodic requirement Short day Long day Day neutral plant (Light period of 12 hr or less) (Light period of 12 hr or more) Strawberry, Pineapple, Coffee Banana, Apple, Passionfruit Papaya, Guava Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in Climatic and Soil Requirements of horticultural crops / Adverse effects of climatic factors on crop growth: Climate and soil are the chief natural factors which influence the plant growth considerably. Climate and its influence on fruit crops : 1) Temperature – Every horticultural crop required defined range of temperature for their normal growth. For example, a) Temperate horticultural crops:- E.g. Fruit :- Apple, Pear, Almand, Walnut Spices : - Saffron, Kalajira, Asafoetida Vegetables: - Cabbage, Cauliflower, European varieties of carrot, Radish. b) Subtropical horticultural crops:- E.g. Fruits:-citrus, Guava, Pomegranate, fig Spices:- Turmeric, ginger, onion and garlic Vegetables:- Tomato, brinjal, chilli, potato, okra, leafy vegetables c) Tropical horticultural crops:- E.g. Fruits:- Mango, Banana, Pineapple, Sapota Spices: - Blackpepper, Turmeric, Ginger and Clove Plantation crops: - Coconut, Arecanut, Cocoa and Coffee Vegetables: - Tomato, Brinjal, Chilli, Onion and Cucurbits A) Minimum temperature:- Hardiness to cold is related to the water content of the tissue. The water in the plant tissues is held in three forms viz. a) Free water b) Osmotically hold water. c) Bound or collidally held water. Plants containing largest amount of “bound water” are more resistant to cold or cold hardy. Low temperature effects: a) Reduction in yield because of reduced rate of carbon assimilation and protein synthesis. b) Sudden fall in temperature kills buds and blossoms. c) bark and trunk splitting and crown injury. d) Cold waves result in leaves turning yellow and blackening of fruits in banana. e) Black heart, crotch injury, crown or collar injury is observed in citrus. f) Death of terminal shoots along with inflorescence in mango. Control measures: a) Cultivation of frost and cold tolerant varieties of fruit trees. b) Provide windbreaks. c) Irrigation the banana orchard raises the temperature by about 10C to 20C d) Burning of refuse in the orchard to create smoke. e) Covering the newly planted saplings with stalks of grain crops. f) Healthy and vigorous trees are less prone to low temperature damage. g) Adequate fertilization, irrigation and regular plant protection measures help to reduce low temperature injuries. Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in B) Maximum temperature: - It includes temperature above 400 C, a number of growth processes are retarded above that temp. High temperature effects: a) High temperature increases the rate of respiration resulting in low yields. b) Increased transpiration from leaves causes desiccation. c) Flower and fruit drop in citrus and mango. d) Sunburn of bark of stems and branches and sun scalding of fruits. e) Increased evaporation of soil moisture. Control measures: a) Provide windbreaks on the south-west side of the garden. b) Irrigate the orchard c) Spray water on trees, as evaporation has a cooling effect. d) Apply Bordeaux paste to exposed bark of stems and branches to prevent sun scorching. C) Optimum temperature: - It is the rang of temp. Between the minimum and the maximum temperature which is desirable for most of the horticultural crops. 2) Atmospheric humidity:- The atmospheric humidity affects the juiciness of the fruit. It is observed that the ambia bahar fruits of Santra juicer than mrig bahar fruits probably due to the fact that the atmospheric humidity during the growing season of ambia bahar is more as compared to that in growing season of mrig bahar crop. The fruits growing in higher humidity are less tasty and do not have good keeping quality. Higher humidity favourable for growth of fungus and bacteria diseases. 3) Rainfall:- a) Excessive rains occurring in short periods are generally unfavorable to fruits as it leads to water logging. b) Rains at blooming may wash away pollens and thereby inhibit pollination. c) In low rainfall regions, cultivation of fruit crops is difficult if adequate and cheap irrigation facilities are not available. 4) Wind:- A situation which is exposed to wind causes greater evaporation of soil moisture and therefore required more frequent irrigation. Hot winds at the time of blossoming may cause failure of pollination due to drying of stigmatic fluid and reduced activities of the pollinating insects. Wind direction and wind velocities have significant influence on crop growth, both mechanically as well as physiologically. a) Mechanical effects – Flower pollination Seed dispersal Tearing of leaves Fruit drop Breaking of branches Uprooting of plants b) Physiological effects – Increased transpiration Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in  Plant desiccation Reduction in plant height due to reduction in cell expansion Alters hormonal balance, increases ethylene production, decreases GA in roots and shoots. 5) Hail – Fruit crops are greatly affected by hail. Hail-storms, however, are rare in Maharashtra. Hailstorm causes shedding of fruits and flowers. 6) Light – (Effect of light on crops) Fruits exposed to light are found to be better in quality than those receiving less light e.g. In santra, it has been observed that the fruits borne on the upper half of the tree and consequently, receiving more light are richer in vitamin ‘C’ content and also contain more sugars as compared to fruits on the lower half of the trees. Fruit trees exposed to strong sunlight causes ‘sun-scalded’ and sunburn. 2 Soil requirements of horticultural crops Soil is important growing medium for the plant which provides support, nutrients and water to the plant growth. While examining the soil, more attention is given to its physical and chemical properties of soil. Favorable soil factors for cultivation of fruit trees; A. Physical properties of soil :- 1. Soil should be porous and well aerated. 2. Soil should be 2-2.5 m deep. 3. Soil should have good and uniform texture. 4. Soil should be well-drained. 5. Soil should have proper aeration. 6. Soil should have proper water holding capacity. 7. Soil should be retentive of nutrients. 8. The water table should be approximately 4 m deep from ground level. B. Chemical properties of soil :- 1. Soil should be fertile. 2. It should be neutral in reaction and PH should be in the range of 6.5-7.5. 3. The soils should be porous, deep and well-aerated. 4. Soil should not be waterlogged, marshy, saline or acidic. 5. Soil should be no hard pan in the bottom layers. 6. Concentration of sodium salts above 0.1% in alkaline soils is considered dangerous causing physiological disorders in fruit trees. 7. The information of salt tolerance is important to select the salt tolerant crop. Salt tolerance: Tolerant Moderately tolerant Sensitive Date, Ber, Pomegranate, Fig, Orange, Lemon, Mango, Citrus, Apple, Aonla, Custard apple, Grape fruit, Peach, Plum, Strawberry Guava Grape,Cashew Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in  5. Kitchen gardening “The utilization of bare land around the house for purpose of growing vegetable crops is known as home or kitchen gardening.” Aim/Purpose of kitchen gardening: The main purpose of the kitchen gardening are as follows, 1. To provide daily fresh vegetables which are rich in nutrients and energy to the family. 2. To Continuous supply of vegetables throughout the year according to the season. 3. To help in lowering down the vegetable bill. Location of kitchen gardening: Kitchen gardening generally located at the backyard of the house enables the members of the family to take constant care of the garden. Types of kitchen gardening: On the basis of cultivated plants kitchen gardens may be divided into following types. a) Kitchen garden having fruits and vegetables b) Kitchen garden having flower and vegetable garden. c) Kitchen garden having only vegetables. These are less common in urban areas. The size of kitchen gardens varies according to the size of residential compound. i) Large size kitchen gardens ii) Medium size kitchen gardens iii) Small size kitchen gardens iv)Terrace garden growing vegetables in pots- In cities and towns where there is little garden space available one can grow vegetables in pots drums and other container on terrace or roof. Advantages of kitchen gardening : 1) Kitchen garden is best means of recreation & exercise. 2) Kitchen garden is excellent hobby and health occupation in spare time for the family members. 3) Provide daily fresh vegetables which are rich in nutrients and energy to the family. 4) Continuous supply of vegetables throughout the year according to the season. 5) Helps in lowering down the vegetable bill. 6) Vegetables grown are fresh and free from infection with germs. 7) Vegetables grown are organic and free from pesticide residue. 8) Less cost for raising vegetables in the kitchen gardening due to one’s own labour, 9) No transport charges & middleman share. 10) Kitchen garden is an ideal medium for training children through garden. 11) The waste water from kitchen can be utilized for the production of these vegetables. 12) Organic waste produced in house can be utilized for preparation of compost for manuring vegetable crops. Guidelines and Principals for management of kitchen garden:- Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in a) Guidelines:- 1. Land: - Utilization of space available in bungalow compound. 2. Location: - Protected from cattle. 3. Source of water: utilization drain water of bathroom and kitchen. 4.Layout of kitchen garden:- Before planting plan on paper 6. Manuring: - use well rotted FYM. 7. Selection of vegetables and varieties: - Select proper vegetable and variety according to region and sowing period. 8. Planting: - Seed should be planted deeper in light soil and shallow in heavy soil at proper planting distance. Vine crop near the fence. Plant the seeds of vegetables like Carrot, radish, peas, bean, spinach, cucumber, direct to the plot. For the vegetable crop like tomato, brinjal, chilli, cole crops raise the seedlings and transplant them. 9. After care keep the plot weed free. Irrigate properly. b) Principals:- Designing of kitchen gardening:- 1) Land should be selected in backyard, preferably rectangular piece than square. 2) Layout should be such as to make a garden look attractive and allow asses to all the parts. 3) Various kinds of vegetables should be grown and land will be laid out in small plots. 4) One plot should be kept reserved for raising nursery seedlings. 5) Climbing types of vegetables can be trained on the fences. 6) Quick growing fruit trees should located preferably on northern side of the garden so that they may not shade other crops. 7) The ridge, which separates the beds, should be utilized for growing root crops. 8) Compost pit should be dug at the corner of the garden. 9) Several sowing & succession of sowing of one particular crop at short intervals should be done for continuous supply of vegetables e.g. fenugreek. Crops for kitchen garden:- The crop to be grown in the kitchen garden depends mainly upon two factors : 1. Size of the kitchen garden:- In case of land availability is large for kitchen garden, a large number of vegetables that the family likes can be grown. If it is limited, only those vegetables can be grown which gives better yield per unit area. 2. The choice of the family: - Vegetables and cultivars should be selected according to the suitability of the region, period of sowing and choice of the family. The crops like tomato, bringal, chilli, cabbage, cauliflower, beans, okra, gourds, leafy vegetables are desirable for kitchen garden. 10. Garden types and Parts Define Garden. Enlist different types of Garden. explain any two types of garden Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in Define Garden. Enlist different Garden parts / features and explain any two parts / features of garden Garden : “Garden is defined as a place where various plant are grown accommodating many other aspects like paths, waterfall, spring, pools and other creating a pleasant and enjoyable site.” Types of Garden: 1. Based on layout- A. Formal garden B. Informal garden C. Free /wild garden A. Formal garden: 1. A formal garden is laid out in a symmetrical pattern or geometrical pattern. 2. In this type of garden the design is stiff and everything is done is done in a straight lines. 3. These types of garden are either square or rectangular in shape. 4. If you divide the garden by drawing a straight line, one part is the mirror image of the other 5. The flower beds are also of geometric shapes. 6. The arrangements of trees and shrubs are always geometrical and kept in shape by trimming and training. 7. Trimmed formal hedges, Ashoka trees and topiary are typical features of formal garden. 8. e.g. Mughal garden, Persian garden. B. Informal garden: 1. In an informal garden the whole design looks informal. 2. The plants and various features are arranged in a natural ways. 3. No hard and fast rules are observed in the form and design. 4. Roads and path are not straight but are curved. 5. Irregular shape is given to water bodies. 6. Flower beds are made of irregular shape to conform with the surrounding. E.g. Japanese garden. C. Free /wild garden: 1. This is new style 2. The idea was put forth by William Robinson in the last decade of the 19th century. 3. The concept of wild garden is not only against all formalists but it also break the rules of landscape style. 4. This is combination of formal and informal garden. 5. Some grasses are allowed to grow as they grow in nature. No pruning or cutting is followed. 6. Some bulbous plants are allowed to grow and spread in their own way. 2. Based on General type- i.Home garden - Garden near to home ii. School garden - Garden near to School iii. Urban garden - Garden near to Cities iv. National park garden - Garden for protection of forest and wild life. Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in v. Industrial garden - Garden near to Industry to control pollution. vi. Arboretum - Botanical garden lucknow, culcutta, Dheradun. 3. Based on Garden styles in the World: Garden styles “The peculiarities in garden layout, features, trees, shrubs, give a homogeneous effect to the garden and when practiced consistently in a particular area is called as the garden style”. Garden styles in the World: 1. Italian gardens 2. Mughal gardens 3. Persian gardens 4. English gardens 5. Japanese style gardens 1. Italian gardens These are similar to Persian and Mughal garden. In these gardens, the use of heavy masonry is of great importance. The main features of these styles are Massive flight of marble stairs to connect different levels in the garden Decorative urns, Fountains Stones sculptures, Statues etc. 2. Mughal gardens Such types of gardens are laid out in symmetrical forms, and are either square or rectangular shape. The garden is divided by a central water canal. On all sides, a wall is constructed. At the end there is a big building. The garden at Taj Mahal is a good example of this style. The most importance features of this style are the presence of “running water and Baradari”. Brindawan garden at Mysore is world’s biggest formal garden. 3. Persian gardens Persian garden style is one of the oldest garden styles and is based on their idea of heaven. The Persian gardens used two natural elements water; the source of life and the trees whose height was chosen to heaven. The Persian styles were strictly formal and symmetrical. They used all crafted material such as masonry, carve and pierced marble stones and highly polished stones in their gardens. 4. English garden The grass is the natural ground cover in English countryside. This is due to the favorable climate and rains occurring throughout the year. The concept of English garden is that they should look like the countryside. The main features of English gardens are Lawn, Herbaceous border, Rockery, Flower beds. 5. Japanese style gardens The Japanese gardens are famous for their unique style, natural beauty and calmness. The Japanese being lovers of nature, miniature natural landscape features of the country i.e. Mountains, rivers, lakes, island, bridges, etc. are created in Japanese style of gardens. Types of Japanese Garden: Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in  1. Hill garden This style is known as Tsukiyama- niwa or Tsukiyama- Sansui meaning hill and water. A fairly large area is required for such garden as laying out mountain scenery needs a large space. The hill garden is made up of one or more hills designed with earth mounds and exposed weathered stones. The other features include water in the form of stream, ponds or a waterfall. 2.Flat garden This style is known as Hira-niwa. Flat garden are laid out in flat ground without hill or pound. Flat garden are supposed to represent a mountain valley or a meadow land. 3. Tea garden This type is laid out based on certain principles and customs of Japanese tea ceremony and hence requires at least 200m2 for its designing. These gardens are enclosed by bamboo fence and are divided in to an outer garden and inner garden to protect the tea house from the noise of the outer world. 4. Passage garden The passage garden known as Roji-niwa. Those are laid in narrow passage like those between two houses or approaches to buildings etc.The garden layout in such areas are simple and not overcrowded. 5. Sand garden It is the simplest style of garden and is not liked by many as it is totally divide the plants. The most famous sand garden is in Kyoto and is known as Ryoanji garden. Parts of gardens / Features of gardens:- 1. Protective walls: Made for safety or beauty point of view. It may be prepared from stones, bricks, concrete and RCC works. 2. Fencing: Prepared for marking the boundary of the garden as well as for the protection purpose. 3. Gate: It is a protective garden feature may be high value, glorious, costly, baradari of Taj garden or may be of simple entry gate prepared by scrap material (wooden or iron). Size, material and quality of gate should be proportionate and parallel to the garden type, space and style. 4. Road, walks, path and drives: Every garden necessarily has a vehicle drives leading from the entrance to the house known as drive. Few paths and walks are necessary to go round and reach to the several parts of the garden. 5. Steps: should be uniform in height as low as possible about four inches high. 6. Edges: when low growing perennial plants are grown on the border of plots or beds, they are called as edge plants or an edge. These plants hardly grow upto 20-30 cm. In garden edges are soft dividers around rockery, trees, flower beds, pathways, drives, lawns. Gradual pruning, shaping are essential operations. While the term edging is used to denote the material or plants of any description which is employed in the garden for dividing the beds, borders, etc. 7. Hedges: “Planting of trees or Shrubs at regular interval in a series to form a continuous screen are called as hedge”. Hedge should be quick growing, hardy and should give high response to pruning. It is kept tidy by trimming into a proper shape and kept in a bound form. It looks like a natural boundary to garden. It not only protects the garden from strong Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in  winds, cattles and thieves but also provides privacy, separates one component of garden from another, afford pleasuring, hides the ugly or unwanted spots of the garden like quarters and compost pits. The height is maintained around 1-4 m. 8. Topiary: it is an art of training the plants into different shapes i/e., of birds, animals, domes, umbrellas, etc. It is an old art now becoming popular in city parks to provide passive recreation to the visitors especially children. The ideal plants for topiary should be elastic, quick growing with small foliage and stand against frequent trimmings. E.g. Clerodendron enerme, Duranta plumeri, Sesbania aegyptica, Inga dulcis, Acasia modesta, thuja compacta, Casuarina equisataefolia. 9. Arches: Arches are generally constructed near the gates or over a path in garden for training the climbers. An arch should be 2.0-2.5 m high. The width depends upon the path / gate width, but it should not be less than 1.0 m. 10. Pergola: it is defined as a series of arches joined together having a particular length (on common parlance so called depth). Pergolas are generally constructed over a pathway which adds beauty in the garden. Like arches the supports made of wooden material, stones, bricks, pillars, angles, G.I. pipes, etc. 11. Dry wall: The gardens laid out on walls or the walls planted with different plants are called as dry walls. 12. Terraces and terrace garden: Terrace is a raised space of ground constructed around a dwelling house or on the sides of hill. It is a common feature of English and Japanese gardens. When terrace is used for gardening it is called as terrace gardening. 13. Lawn: A lawn which is a green carpet is an essential feature of a garden whether a small home garden, public park, office or factory gardens. 14. Carpet bedding: The term carpet bedding means covering an area preferably a bed or series of beds with a dense low growing herbaceous plants according to a set design. Plants for carpet bedding are: coleus, pilea, cineraria, portulaca, iresine, alternanthera. 15. Shrubs: “Group of woody plants, smaller than trees, 0.5-4.5m in height which have tendency to produce large number of branches/shoots from base.” Foliage shrubs: Acalypha, Crotons, Mussaendra, Penax, Aralia, Draecena, etc. Flowering shrubs: Rose, Tagar, Hibiscus, Bouganvillea, Exora, Mussaenda, Crossandra. 16. Flower beds: Flowers are most attractive when marked in beds. These flower beds should be simple in design such as square, circular, oval. Plants for flower beds are holly hock, snapdragon, aster, chrysanthemum, balsam, calendula, dianthus, cosmos, celocia, candy tuft, verbena, tuberose, gladiolus, tulips, salvia, zinnia, gerbera, cosmos, etc. 17. Borders: Borders are the continuous beds of more length than breadth/ width containing plants of continuous heterogeneous characters. Borders are the shrubs and are planted in front of the hedge along the wall. E.g. Canna indica, Lantana camara, Daisy, Lily, etc. 18. Rockery: the term rockery is usually associated with the large shady tree. The rocks selected should be of local origin, should be porous and have a weathered look, different sizes, shapes and colours to give a desired landscape effect. Plants suitable for rockery are Cacti, Succulents, Ferns, Crossandra, Jatropa, Russelia Juncea, pilea muscosa, Portulaca, Verbena, agave, sedum, snake plant, asparagus, vinca 19. Water garden: for water garden the pools may be formal or informal. Different aquatic plants like lotus, water lilies are planted in it. It should be drained once a year with power operated water pump. Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in 20. Marsh or bog garden: It is a marsh area in garden from where a shallow trickle or stream runs through. 21. Sunken garden: The garden laid below the ground surface is called as sunken garden. Moisture loving plants like ferns and gardenia are planted. 22. Gardening in shade: Some plants which tolerate relatively low light and thrive in it can be chosen from an array of flowering annuals, perennials for gardening in shade. 23. Standards: Shrubs may be trained to a single stem and allowed to grow upto certain height and then branch out and form a handsom head only above a particular height; then they are known as standards. Plants suitable for standards are Duranta, Ficus benjamina, Thuja, Rose, etc. 24. Green house and Conservatory: Some plants cannot thrives in open sun and hence they need to keep under shade or semi shade conditions. The objects of green house and conservatory are to provide and maintain the required shade and cool the atmosphere suitable for the growth of such plants. E.g. coleus, piliea and most of the succulents. 25. Climbers: Climber is defined as a plant which possesses special structures to climb over a support. E.g. Bouganvilleas, 26. Creepers:- Creepers are those plants which are unable to climb vertically on their own because of their weak stems. E.g. Ipomoea palmata 27. Succulents: The main character of succulents is that they have very fleshy foliage or stem or even both. These plants mostly inhabit at dry, dessert locality in open situation and are capable of withstanding long hot spell of drought as they store sufficient moisture in their succulent parts. In most species the body is covered with thorns. E.g. Aloe, Cactus, Opuntia, Snake plant, Bryophyllum spp. 28. Trees: Tree is a long stem growing with huge branches. Flowering trees: Gulmohar, Cassia spp., Colvillea, Bakul, Kadamba, Copper pod tree, Jacaranda, etc. Ornamental trees: Eucalyptus, Ashoka, Silver Oak, Ficus benjamina, Sita Ashok, etc. Foliage trees: Ficus spp., Rain tree, Mahogani, Royal palm, etc. 29. Avenue: Linear planting of tall straight growing, wide spreading trees. E.g. Eucalyptus, Royal palm, Drooping ashoka, Rain tree, Peltophorum, Banyan. 30. Water channels: Common garden feature of mughal style. E.g. Vrindavan gard Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in  Training and Pruning its objectives, principles and methods Define training and pruning. Give its objectives, principles and methods in short. Training Def: - “Judicious removal of any part of plant in order to give better shape to plant capable of bearing heavy crop load”. Objectives of training :- 1)To admit more sunlight and air in the center of the tree and to expose maximum leaf surface to sunlight for photosynthesis and better colouration and maturity of fruit. 2) To develop better frame work and growth of the tree, so that various cultural operations such as spraying, picking, pruning etc. are facilitated. 3) To secure a balanced distribution of fruit load on branches to bear more fruits. 4) To develop strong crotches and well spaced limbs to bear heavy crop. 5) To develop a balanced between vegetative and reproductive growth of the trees. Principles of training:- 1) Training of fruit tree should be done in earlier age of tree. 2) Most of the fruit trees are trained through single stem ( mango, jamun and sapota) however some fruits are trained through multistem. E.g. Pomegranate, fig, custard apple etc. The selected shoot should be well distributed all over the main stem. 3) The fruit trees which have prominent apical dominance the terminal bud should be removed to facilitate to produce side branches/shoot. 4) The shoot having strong crotch are retained on the tree. 5) The water sprout should be removed. Methods of training:- There are three types of training system to achieve maximum tree life and productivity. v) Central leader system:- i) In this training system the main stem is allowed to grow unchecked. ii) A central leader tree is characterized by one main, upright trunk referred as the leader. iii) In this system the first branches is allow to grow at 45 to 50 cm height from ground level and other branches are allowed to grow on main stem at a distance of 15 to 20 cm. As the main stem grow continuously. iv) In this system the trees attain robust shape due to less interception of light by lower branches mostly they remain unproductive. vi) The bearing is confined in the top portion of the trees. Furthermore the robust shape of trees poses a problem in harvesting of fruit and practicing spray operation etc. vii) The very high shape of plants make them problem too wind damage also. This method of training is not suitable for high altitude and hot arid places where wind velocity is high. Advantages 1) Development strong crotches due to junction of limb and trunk. Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in Disadvantages 1) Lower branches remain un productive. 2) Bearing is confined to top portion of trees hence there is difficulty in harvesting of fruits 3) Trees prone to wind damage. 4) Not suitable for high altitude and hot winds where there is high velocity e.g. Saputo, mango, Jamum. viii) Open centre system:- In this system when the plant attains a height of 40 to 50 cm it is deheaded. From the subsequent vegetative growth 4-5 branches well scattered, arranged and distributed all round the main stem are selected. The tree thus trained attains less height. There is better interception by all the shoots of the tree and all branches are facilitates easy carrying out the operations like harvesting and spraying on the tree. In this system the plants take a bowl shape which provides a good base for settling of frost. Hence open centre system of training is not suitable for high altitude. Advantages 1) Better penetration of light to inner side of the tree i.e. at the centre and all branches bears fruiting. 2) Facilitate easy intercultural operations. Disadvantages 1) This system is not suitable for high altitude where frost are common e.g. apple, pear, peach ix) Modified leader system:- This is intermediate form of central leader and open centre system and having benefits of both system. In this system the main stem is allowed to grow for 4 to 5 years and headed back at height of 100 to 120 cm. The first branches allowed to grow at 40 cm height from ground level and 4-5 branches located at a distance of 15 to 20 cm and placed all round the main stem. Pruning:- Def: - “Pruning is an art of removing scientifically certain portions of plant in order to divert the sap flow towards the fruiting area on the plant to produce more superior quality fruits”. Objective of pruning 1) To develop manageable frame work of tree. 2) To control height of tree for easy intercultural operations. 3) To maintain vigour, growth, flowering and fruitfulness of the tree. 4) To spread fruiting area uniformly on tree. 5) To produce more superior quality of fruits. 6) To encourage regular flowering and fruiting. 7) To remove dead, diseased and broken branches. Principles of pruning:- 1) Removal of water sprout. Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in 2) The shoots should be removed completely from the base. 3) Avoid bark injury during pruning. 4) It should be completed well in advance of flowering season. 5) In temperate tree, it should be done in advance of winter which minimizes low temp injury. 6) Apply borseaux paste after pruning to avoid incidence of disease. 7) Crowded, diseased, damaged and pest infested branches should be removed. 8) The wood which is not needed for the plant is to be removed. 9) Excessive pruning and pruning of larger limbs should be avoided. Methods of pruning:- 1) Thinning out:- When a shoot is removed entirely from the inception( from the point of origin) so that no new shoot arises from that place it is termed as thinning out. 2) Trimming:- Removal of part of the twings to a pre determinable leaves is known as trimming. 3) Heading back:- Removal of terminal portion or part of shoot leaving a basal portion intact is termed as heading back. E.g. this operation stimulates development of more growing points. Grape, Phalsa, Fig. 4) Pollarding: - Mere cutting back of the shoot, indiscriminately to reduce the height of the tree is known as pollarding. 5) Pinching: - Removal of the tip of the shoot to stop its indeterminate growth ot to encourage the growth of the lateral buds is known as pinching. 6) Disbudding: - Removal of tip of the shoot alone in order to stimulate the lateral branches growth and removes the apical dominance. Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in  Juvenility and flower bud differentiation Juvenility :- The period required to obtain the first crop in the life cycle of plant is called as Juvenility. E.g. Mango :3-4 years, Coconut :6-7 years. Every plant has two distinct phases of development namely vegetative and Reproductive. 1.Vegetative phase:- In the vegetative phase the plant produces only vegetative growth i.e. leaves, shoots etc. Vegetative phase lasts for several years depending upon the variety and species is called as Juvenility or pre-bearing period. 2.Reproductive phase:- In these phase the plant produces reproductive growth i.e. flowers and fruits. Once the perennial tree completes its pre-bearing period, the cycle of vegetative and reproductive phases might occur in each season or the reproductive phase may occur simultaneously along with vegetative phase without much distinction between the two. The growth of the plant, either vegetative or reproductive takes its origin in the buds. These buds are normally found towards the apex of the shoot and the axils of the leaves (single bud). But in some cases more than one bud is found in the leaf axils as in the case of peach, Japanese plum, grape etc. The extra buds are normally called as Supernumerary buds or accessory buds. Any bud on sprouting produces only a vegetative shoot is known as a vegetative bud, while the bud which produces floral parts only or a shoot with flowers is known as flower bud or fruit bud. In case the bud produces a shoot with flowers and leaves it is known as mixed bud. The physiological and morphological changes occur in a vegetative bud in its preparation to change over to the reproductive phase or to become a flower bud may be called as flower bud initiation”. Further developmental changes that occur in an initiated flower bud leading to the formation of the embryonic flower inside the bud are known as Flower Bud Differentiation. Both the steps of initiation and differentiation together called as “Flower Bud Formation.” Depending upon crop, variety, and region there may be varying periods of Flower Bud Differentiation. For example, in mango in our state Flower Bud Differentiation takes place in the month of August to October. The knowledge of Flower Bud Differentiation important to the grower, so as to supply the nutrients well in advance. Fruiting or Bearing habits: “The manner or patter in which a plant produces its fruit is known as bearing habit or fruiting habit”. Classification of Fruiting or Bearing habits: The bearing habit of fruit plants are classified into six groups. Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in Group I : Fruit bud terminal, flower bud producing only flower parts, e.g., mango, cashew. Group II: Fruit bud terminal, mixed bud with flower parts situated terminally on the flowering shoot, e.g., apple, pear. Group III: Fruit bud terminal, mixed bud, with flower parts situated laterally on the flowering shoot, e.g., guava. Group IV: Fruit bud lateral, pure bud producing only flower parts, e.g., citrus, coconut, date Group V: Fruit and lateral, mixed bud, with flower parts terminally on the flowering shoot, e.g., grapes, cashew and Annonaceous fruits. Group VI: Fruit bud lateral, mixed bud, with flower parts laterally on the flowering shoot e.g. fig, mulberry, ber etc. Out of these six groups, the first three come under terminal bears, through we see fruits laterally on the flowering shoot in Group III. The other three groups are lateral bearers through we see fruits terminally on the flowering shoot in group. The knowledge of bearing habits will be of much importance for regulating the bearing of any plant by means of pruning, terminal bearers are not normally pruned. Whereas in case of lateral bearers pruning certainly increase the bearing, as it encourages the sprouting of lateral buds. 1. Unfruitfulness Q. Define unfruitfulness. Enlist and Explain factors affecting unfruitfulness. Definition- “Inability of plants to produce mature fruits is called as unfruitfulness”. Factor affecting unfruitfulness:- I) Internal Factors:- A) Evolutionary tendencies: B) Genetic influence 1) Imperfect flowers. 1) Sterility and unfruitfulness due to hybridity 2) Heterostyly 2) Incompatibility 3) Dichogamy C) Physiological influences 4) Structural peculiarities 1) Slow growth of pollen tube 5) Abortion of pistil or ovule 2) Due to early or late pollination 6) Impotence of pollen 3) Nutritive condition within the plant body II) External factors:- 1) Environment 2) Nutrient supply 3) Pruning and grafting 4) Locality 5) Season 6) Age and Vigour of the plant 7) Temperature 8) Light 9) Water relations 10) Rains at blossoming 11) Wind Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in  12) Insect and pest attack 13) Absences of pollinating agents 14) Weeds and intercrops I) Internal Factors: 1.Imperfect flowers: Most of the fruit trees bears perfect flowers containing both male and female parts. If male and female flowers are born on the same tree is called “monoecious” e.g litchi, banana and if they are born on different tree it is called as “dioecious” e.g papaya, dates, Therefor monoecious plants are always fruitful. 2. Heterostyly: “The difference in height of style and filament is called heterostyly” which causes disturbance in pollination and plant remains unfruitful. 3. Dichogamy:”The maturity of pollen grains and stigma at different times is called Dichogamy”. If pollens are discharged before stigma it is called as “protandry”. eg. Custard apple, bullock heart. When stigma becomes receptive before the maturity of pollens called as “protogyny.” eg. Sapota. 4. Structural peculiarities: Flowers of certain varieties look normal but when examined closely observed some minor peculiarities in the structure which affects pollination and plant becomes unfruitful. E.g. Some varieties of pear. 5. Abortion of pistil or ovule: Interference either in the development of the flower or sex elements and their function leads to unfruitfulness. 6. Impotence of pollen:Certain perfect flowers produces a limited amount of pollens, majority of which are non-viable and thus causes unfruitfulness. B) Genetic influence: 1. Sterility and unfruitfulness due to hybridity: Hybridity, many times results in the development of self-sterile. E.g. hybridization between Vitis vinifera and Vitis rotundifolia. 2. Incompatibility:One of the most common cause of self sterility and unfruitfulness is Incompatibility between pollen and ovule. E.g. Apple, pear. C) Physiological influences 2. Unfruitfulness due to slow growth of pollen tube: Slow growth of pollen tube may be due to hormonal control due to temperature. E.g. Citrus, apple 3. Due to early or late pollination: If the pollination is early before the maturity of pistal, no fertilization takes place and flowers drop down before set. E.g. tobacco. Similarly, delayed pollination where ovule complete its life cycle before the pollen tube enters the embryo sac, leads to failure of fertilization and thus causes unfruitfulness. 4. Nutritive condition within the plant body: Nutritive condition within the plant body affects the viability of pollens, structure of pistil, setting of fruits etc. II) External factors 1. Environment: Conditions at the onset and during flowering affects fruit setting. 2. Supply: Nutrient supply within the plant can be changed by withholding or supplying nutrients their by affecting fruitfulness. 3. Pruning and grafting: Pruning influences the internal nutrient condition of the plant, shifting the balance of C:N ratio which in turns affects the fruitfulness. 4. Locality:Potato and certain plants may flower at certain localities. Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in 5. Season: The seasonal variation at the same place also affects the fruit setting. 6. Age and Vigour of the plant: Age and Vigour of the plant often controls the internal nutrient condition within the plant body. E.g. Coconut 7. Temperature: High temperature at flowering dries up stigmatic secretion and prevents pollination. Temperature above or below the critical limit affects the fruit setting. E.g. Citrus 8. Light: Light affects the manufacturing of carbohydrates in the plant body and their by internal nutritive condition of the plant which decides the fruitfulness. 9. Water relations: Low soil moisture accompanied with low humidity and high temperature causes moisture deficits in the plant body which promotes the formation of abscission layer leading to dropping of flowers and undeveloped fruits. 10. Rains at blossoming: Rains during blossoming causes washing away of pollens, stigmatic secretion resulting in unfruitfulness. 11. Wind: Mild wind helps in pollination. But high winds with high temperature causes desiccation of stigma and reduction in insects activities adversely affecting the pollination resulting in unfruitfulness. 12. Insect and disease attack: Insect and disease attack at the time of flowering affecting the fruit setting causing unfruitfulness. E.g. Mango hopper 13. Absences of pollinating agents: Rearing bee colonies in fruit orchards helps to increases pollination and fruitfulness. 14. Weeds and intercrops: Weeds and intercrops may compete with the main crop for nutrition and water in low rainfall areas affecting fruitfulness. Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in  Use of plant bio- regulators in horticulture The term bio-regulators is also called as plant growth regulators or plant hormones or plant growth substances or growth hormones. a) Plant bio regulators/ Plant growth regulators “Plant growth regulators are the organic substances other than nutrients or chemical substances which can modify or regulate the physiological processes of plant when applied at very low concentration”. b) Types or classification of plant bio regulators 1) Auxin: - e.g. NAA, IAA, IBA, 2, 4-D, MCPA (2-methyl 4- chloro phenoxy acetic acid) 2) Gibberellins: - e.g. GA1, GA3, GA49 3) Cytokinins: - e.g. Zeatin, Kinetins, 6BA (6- benzyl amino Purine) 4) Abscissic acid: - e.g. ABA 5) Ethylene: - e.g. Ethrel 6) Growth retardant: - E.g. CCC (Cycocel), Phosphone- D, AMO-1618, B-995, B-9 7) Growth inhibitors: - e.g. MH-40, TIBA (Tri iodo Benzyl amino Purine) c) 1) Auxin This word was first time used by went (1928). Auxins means to increase Auxin is synthesized in shoot tip region particularly in young expanding leaves of the apical region, developing embryo and in developing fruit etc. The site of synthesis beginning with the synthesis of Amino acid Tryoptophan. Therefore tryptophan is known as precursor of IAA. Auxin have polar movement i.e. apex to downward. Site of synthesis:The auxins are synthesized in shoot tips, young leaves, developing seeds. They are transported from the apical to the basal end is known as polar transport. d) Types of auxin 1) Natural auxin: - IAA, IBA (maize leaves and various dicot) 2) Synthetic auxins: - NAA, 2,4-D, IBA, MCPA 3) Anti- auxins: - These are the certain compound when applied to the plant which can nullify the effect of auxins e.g. 2, 3, 5- Tri- idobenzoic acid (TIBA), 2,4- Dichloro ranizole(RCA) 2) Gibberellins (GA):- Gibberellins are the compounds that have gibbane skeleton which stimulate the cell elongation. In 1926 discovered gibberellins by Japanese scientist Kurosava extracted from fungi grown on root of rice seedlings i.e. Gibberella fujikuroi. Yabuta and sumiki (1938) gave the name gibberellins. Stodol (1955) gave the structure of GA3. Chemical formula: - C19 H24 O6 Site of synthesis: - Main site is immature seed embryo, young leaves, germinating seedlings. e) 3) Cytokinins Cytokinins are the substances which promote cell division. Cytokinins are also known as phytokinins. Miller in 1955 isolated kinetin from yeast and Latham and miller (1964) isolated zeatin from maize seeds. f) Types of cytokinins 1) Natural cytokinins: - zeatin, di-hydrozeatin and iso pentanyladanin (IPA) Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in 2) Synthetic cytokinins: - Kinetin, 6BA(6- benzyl aminopurine) Site of synthesis Root apical meristem, immature fruits, coconut water, maize seeds and tomato juice g) 4) Abscisic acid (ABA) Abscission is a great practical problem in plants. It is a sequiterpenoid compound of 15 carbons. Osborne (1955) and Addicott (1963-1965) isolated several abscission accelerating substances i.e. abscission I and II both are identical. After 1967 abscission II or dormin is named as abscisic acid (ABA). Site of synthesis The site of synthesis is chloroplasts and plastids of dicot and monocots. Viloxanthin is the precursor of ABA. It is synthesized as stress hormone. h) 5) Ethylene: - It is a plant hormone which has many effect in plant from seed germination to senescence and death of plant. Gane (1934) and croker et al (1935) proposed that the ethylene is a fruit ripening hormone which also acts as growth regulator in many plants. It is a gaseous in nature and moves from site of synthesis Site of synthesis: - synthesized in the tissue undergoing senescence and ripening. i) 6) Growth retardants:- It slow down the cell division and cell enlargement in short time and regulate plant height e.g. CCC, B-9 j) 7) Growth inhibitors These are the chemical substances which check the growth. Naturally occurring plant growth inhibitors are also called as stress hormone e.g. MH-40 and TIBA. k) Growth regulators - IBA – For rooting of cutting, GA – for break the seed dormancy, Ethylene – for ripening 1 ppm = Parts per million 1 million = 10,00,000 = 10 lakh 1 gm = 1000 mg 1 gm in 1 lit of water = 1000 ppm 1 mg in 1 lit of water = 1 ppm 1 ml of chemical in 1 lit of water = 1000 ppm Use / Role of plant bio regulators in horticulture:- 1 Seed germination:- Growth regulators are used to break seed dormancy due to presence of hard seed coatand also for early seed germination with more percentage. E.g. Sweet orange seed in 1000 ppm GA, aonla and many vegetables at 500 ppm GA increases the germination percentage. Apple and peach seeds soaked in 100-200 ppm GA can replace the stratification requirement. Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in 2. Propagation of plants:- a) Rooting of cutting: - For rooting of cutting IBA is commonly used. E.g. profuse root formation is observed in cuttings of fig, pomegranate, rose etc by IBA @ 100ppm. b) Layering and grafting:- Auxins are applied to girdled portion to promote root formation in layering also for promoting early union in grafting. E.g. IBA (3000 ppm). 3. Control of flower drop:- Control of flower drop in many fruit and vegetable crops. E.g. spray of 10 ppm NAA in mango Control flower drop. 4. Breaking of dormancy:- l) Seed dormancy:- Seeds soaking in 100 ppm GA3 break seed dormancy in European peach. m) Bud dormancy: Dipping potato tubers in 50 to 2000 ppm GA3 for 5-40 minutes breaks the dormancy of bud and helps in uniform sprouting of buds. 5. Retarding plant growth:- Use of ccc as foliar spray reduces plant height and increases blossoms of poinsettia. 6. Regulation of flowering:- In pineapple (Kew variety) by spraying 5-10 ppm solution of NAA and 100 to 200 GA in dahlia plants induces early flowering. 7. Control of sex expression:- In number of cucurbits such as ridge gourd, bitter gourd, water melon, cucumber etc. the male flower is more than female flowers. Auxins are used to increase the number of female flowers. The commonly used auxins are NAA and Ehrel. eg. ethephone at 250 ppm to pumpkin results in increased production of female flowers. Application of GA at 1000 ppm to young cucumber seedlings increases flowers in cucumber. 8. Control of fruit set and growth of fruit:- Dipping of grape bunches in GA solution increases the berry size in Thompson seedless grapes. E.g. GA 400-500 ppm. 9. Control of fruit drop:- The fruit drop can be controlled by spraying 10-20 ppm NAA or 10 ppm 2, 4-D after fruit set. The fruit drop in mango can be also be controlled by these two auxins. 10. Thinning of fruits: - it is necessary to thin the fruits so as to nourish remaining fruits properly for development of fruit. In such cases spraying with mild solution of ethrel reduces the fruit load by 25 -30% 11. Control of abscission:- Flower and fruit thinning:- Application of gibberellins at 500 ppm to peach is effective in thinning of the fruits. 12. Early ripening and development of fruit colour:- If the fruit could be brought in the market in early part of the season, they fetch good price spraying with 2,4,5-T and B9 hastens maturity of apples by 1-4 weeks. 13. Prevention of sprouting In potatoes and onion after harvest in storage the bud starting sprouting which makes them unfit for cooking. Spraying of MH-40 or dipping them in 0.25% solution before storing, prevents sprouting and these can be stored safely for 6 months. 14. Control of weeds:- Successful control of weeds is obtained by spraying 2, 4-D at 750 gm/ha in 750 lit of water. The effect for 4 month. 15. Use in tissue culture:- In this technique a tissue is placed on a media containing the auxins which helps the tissue to develop leaves and other organ. Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in 16. Induction of parthenocarpy:- Spraying of GA and NAA after appearance of flower and after fruit set not only reduces the size of seeds but sometimes make the fruits seedlessness e.g. NAA at 0.05%. 17. Increasing storage life of cut flower:- Cut bases of carnation when dipped at 10 ppm BA for 2 minutes increases the vase life of 3-5 days. Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in  Irrigation and fertilizer application methods Irrigation ”Irrigation is defined as the artificial application of water to the plants in the event of shortage of natural rains in order to obtain rapid growth and increased yields”. Methods of irrigation:- There are following methods of irrigation, I. Surface irrigation: a. Flooding b. Basin type c. Furrow type d. Ring type II. Sub-surface irrigation: a. Trench method b. Through underground pipelines b. Perforated pipelines. III. Overhead irrigation: a. Sprinkler IV. Drip or trickle irrigation I. Surface irrigation: a. Flooding: When the land is flat, letting in water from one end floods the entire area. This system is commonly practiced in canal or tank bed areas. It is the easiest method and permits the use of bullock drawn implements in the orchards. But in this there is wastage of water and leads to soil erosion also. It encourages growth of weeds and spread of diseases like gummosis in citrus, collar rot in papaya. b. Basin system: In this system, circular basins are provided around the trunk of the tree. The basins are inter-connected in series and are fed through the main channel running perpendicular to the tree rows. When compared to flooding, this system minimises the loss of water. In this system of irrigation, the water close to trunk may bring about certain diseases like gummosis and nutrients are likely to be carried over from one basin to the other. c. Furrow system: Unlike the flood system, here the entire land surface is not covered with irrigation water. The furrows are opened in the entire orchard. Water is let in these furrows from the main channels. In orchards, two furrows on each side of the rows are generally made. It is suited to such lands, which have a moderate slope to the extent of 1-2% if the water is to run freely and reach the ends of the furrows. This method has disadvantage of excess of water penetration at the head than at the farther end, which may result in variation in vigour and growth of trees. d. Ring system: This is an improvement over the basin system. In this system, a ring is formed close and around the tree and water is let into the basin. This method is recommended for citrus trees to reducing the chances of collar rot. The size of the ring will increase as the tree grows. In this system, the spread of diseases like collar rot are prevented. it involves more labour and capital and it does not permit uniform distribution of water. II. Sub-surface irrigation: Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in  ▪ This system consists of conducting water in number of furrows or ditches underground in perforated pipelines until sufficient water is taken into the soil so as to retain the water table near the root zone. ▪ In limited situation, this may be a very desirable system of irrigation. ▪ It must be used with great caution because of the danger of water logging and salt accumulation. ▪ If the sub-strata are so slowly permeable that practically no water moves through, water added may stand in soil sufficiently for long time which results an injury to the plant root due to poor aeration. ▪ Where irrigation water or the sub-soil contains appreciable amount of salt, sub-soil irrigation is usually not advisable. ▪ Land must be carefully levelled for successful subsoil irrigation so that raising the water table will wet all parts of the field equally. III. Overhead irrigation: Sprinkler irrigation system: The method of applying water to surface of soil in the form of spray is called as Sprinkler irrigation system. In this system, water is applied in the form of spring, somewhat resembling rainfall. Types – 1.fixed nozzles 2. Perforated pipes 3. Rotating sprinklers. Nozzles are spaced 16 cm apart each rotary nozzles covers circle about 16m. It is quite useful where only small streams are available, such as irrigation wells of small capacity. It is helpful in irrigating at the seedling stage when the furrowing is difficult and flooding leads to crusting of soil. Mostly used in sandy soils. Fertilizer materials may be evenly applied by this method. This is usually done by drawing liquid fertilizer solutions slowly into the pipe. Advantages: i) This system is best adopted for areas where ordinary surface systems are inefficient. ii) Considerable saving of water and labour. Disadvantages: i) High initial cost, ii) Difficult to work in windy location, iii) Trouble from clogging of nozzle, iv) Interference in pollination process. v) Requirement of more labours while removing or resetting. IV. Drip irrigation or Trickle irrigation system: Water is applied in the form of drops direct to the root zone of trees is called as Drip irrigation system. Drip irrigation system is also called as “Trickle irrigation” system Application of fertilizers with drip irrigation water is possible. There will be an installation of pipelines with nozzles very close to the soil. The nozzle is fitted in such a way that water is dripped almost in the root-zone of the plants. Practised in area where water is scare or saline. This is the most recent system of irrigating the plants. Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in  It is usually practise for high value crops, especially in green houses and glass houses. Fertigation : application of fertilizers with irrigation water is called as FertigationWater is allowed to move in pipes under very low or no pressure and it drop at regular interval. Advantages: i) No disturbance of the soil.ii) Soil moisture is maintained iii) Lesser leaching of nutrients from the soil. iv) Application of fertilizers with drip irrigation water is possible. Disadvantages: High initial cost Telegram : AgroMind Website : agromind.in