US History Notes Topic 3 (Challenges in the Late 1800s) PDF

Topic 3.1 Cultural similarities & differences Americans Settle in the West 250k American Indians lived W of Mississippi River in Policy of moving Indians out of areas to be settled 1865 began...

Topic 3.1 Cultural similarities & differences Americans Settle in the West 250k American Indians lived W of Mississippi River in Policy of moving Indians out of areas to be settled 1865 began pre-Civil War under Pres Andrew Jackson Pacific NW tribes (Klamath, Chinook, Shasta) lived 1834 limited trade w/Indians and limited access of among abundant forest/river ecosystems settlers to “Great American Desert” west of Pueblos in NM/Arizona lived by subsistence agriculture Mississippi River in desert cliff dwellings Desire for transcontinental railroad and discovery of Navajos were nomadic, living in homes that could be gold and silver in Indian land changed calculus moved Gov’t began designating Indian Reservations in late Plains Indians (Sioux, Blackfeet, Crow, Cheyenne, 1860s, limiting their natural movement Comanche) were expert horsemen & lived off buffalo Introduction of disease and depletion of buffalo Indians generally viewed land as a source of bounty population put stress on Indian tribes as well rather than individual wealth Conflicts on the Plains During Civil War in Minnesota Sioux Indians clashed w/settlers, killing >400; gov’t pushed Sioux out of Minnesota into Dakotas Indians began attacking settlements/stagecoach lines on a broader scale In 1864 John Chivington’s Colorado Militia slaughtered >150 Cheyenne and Arapaho men/women/children in the Sand Creek Massacre at Fort Lyons, despite Fort’s commander having given permission for Indians to camp there After Civil War troops went west to put down Indian rebellions, under promise they could plunder the Indians’ horses and other goods Peace Efforts Fail Gov’t announced plans to build road through Sioux hunting grounds to connect mining towns in Montana 1866 Indian warrior Red Cloud led Capt William Fetterman's troop into an ambush and slaughtered them (Fetterman Massacre) Govt’ believed peace could only be achieved w/Indians on reservations & assimilating into anglo way of life Gov’t offered Fort Laramie Treaty in 1868, abandoning mine road and settlements and offering Indians Black Hills and infrastructure for reservations there in exchange for the Sioux and other tribes to live there Peace plans such as this were often unsuccessful due to poor quality of land offered, lack of trust between parties, corruption, and lack of gov’t support or followthrough  Topic 3.1 Long Walk of the Navajos Southern Plains Indians Surrender Gov’t sent frontiersman Kit Carson to subdue Navajos Kiowas and Comanches ultimately defeated in “Red in 1863 River War” War caused by violations of 1867 Treaty of After destroying most of their crops and livestock Medicine Lodge which obligated Americans to stay off Carson sent 8K Navajos on “long walk” to New Indian Hunting Grounds and not hunt buffalo Mexico Indians attacked Texans in June 1874, surrendering a In NM Navajos were forced onto land unsuitable for year later farming and right next to their enemies, the Apaches End of war marked opening of TX panhandle to After 4 years gov’t allowed Navajos to return home settlement & end of Southern Buffalo herd Battle of the Little Big Horn Fighting Concludes Black Hills Gold Rush 1875 drew Gold prospectors to 1877 gov’t moved Nez Perce Indians to reservation in SD/MT Idaho to clear room for settlers Some of this area reserved for Indians under Treaty of Many Nez Perce had already assimilated somewhat Fort Laramie to anglo culture, adopting Christianity and becoming Sitting Bull assembled Sioux troops to drive ranchers prospectors out, drawing response from Gen George Chief Joseph ultimately led his people to a reservation Custer’s Cavalry in Oklahoma to avoid fighting federal troops, Indians led by Crazy Horse massacred Custer and his unsuccessfully fighting it in the legal system for years men Sitting Bull ultimately escaped to Canada; Crazy Horse was captured Indian Resistance Comes to an End Loss of leaders and destruction of resources rendered many Indian tribes unable to continue fighting; many turned to spirituality “Ghost Dance” ritual became popular in an effort to drive out the white settlers and bring back the buffalo In 1890 gov’t attempted to put a stop to Ghost Dance by arresting Sitting Bull, ultimately killing him and others Some Sioux left the reservation to hide in the Badlands before their ultimate massacre at Wounded Knee, despite being badly outnumbered and outgunned The “Ghost Dance War” was the last major Indian resistance  Topic 3.1 Assimilation, Criticism, and Americanization The Reservation system is widely regarded as a failure, both in economic and human terms Critics such as Helen Hunt Jackson (A Century of Dishonor) were outspoken in their harsh appraisal of gov’t actions & policy 1871 Fed Gov’t passed law dissolving tribal recongiziton, forcing Indians to negotiate as individuals in an attempt to make them assimilate Dawes Act (1887) ended tribal landholdings, dividing reservations among individuals Indians and introducing foreign concept of property ownership to Indian culture To protect Indian land from unscrupulous investors it could not be sold for 25 years, but much of it was worthless anyway Tribal traditions and practices were largely outlawed, and anglo-Indian schools were opened. Little remains of American Indian culture today.  Topic 3.2 Mining Towns Expand Mining Becomes Big Business Discoveries of Gold & Silver ore drove rapid growth of Early mining was done by individuals; this model was most mining towns across west (Colorado, California, Alaska, etc) common until ores near surface were exhausted Most mining towns offered subsistence-level services and Once ore deposits were only to be found underground, places for miners to buy equipment & sell their gold companies with industrial equipment dug tunnels over large Mining towns often dangerous and lawless, with churches areas to mine and vigilantes providing structure (if any) Mining generated several kinds of pollutions, including Towns boomed until the ore ran out in which case many fill/slag and wastewater that fouled drinking reservoirs became ghost towns Gov’t continued to encourage mining through land grants and tax breaks despite environmental impact The Transcontinental Railroad Business interests began pushing for transcontinental railroad before Civil War; private nature of railroad business in US (as opposed to public ownership in Europe) made it difficult Congress encourages Transcontinental RR through loans and land grants to railroad companies In 1863 Central Pacific RR began building east from Sacramento, CA and Union Pacific RR began building west from Omaha, NE Construction was difficult, with many injuries and deaths due to accidents with landslides, explosives, etc.; much work was done by immigrants In 1869 Union Pacific and Central Pacific met at Promontory Point, Utah, completing the Transcontinental link Railroads Spur Settlement and Growth Additional transcontinental lines were built, including a private line from St Paul, MN to Seattle that offered lower fares than the government-sponsored construction Towns and development began to spread along the rail lines as the traffic of passengers and goods increased Speculators began acquiring land in the hopes railroads would develop there; pressure on Indians to surrender their land and move to reservations increased Railroads contributed to the closing of the frontier and to the admission of ten new western states between 1864-1896 Topic 3.2 Longhorns and Vaqueros Cowboys and Cattle Drives Before TX Statehood Mexican ranchers raised longhorn After round-up, Cowboys drove cattle over land to cattle under open-range system, w/cattle identified by railroad depots that could transport them back east for brands sale Vaqueros (Mexican cowboys) used horses to manage, Cattle drives were long and dangerous, often taking round-up, and move cattle on cattle drives weeks or months American Cowboy Culture arose from Mexican Vaqueros Bands of Cowboys often included white, black, and hispanic men Cow Towns The End of the Open Range Much like mining towns Cow Towns sprang up along Several million cattle were driven north through the open drive routes to service Cowboys ranges in the 15 years after the Civil War In larger Cow Towns such as Dodge City, KS, markets Cattle industry changed in the 1880s due to the developed to buy & sell cattle, meaning Cowboys were expansion of railroads, the invention of barbed wire, and paid there at the end of the drive overproduction of beef Western Rodeo culture originated in Cow Towns Farmers and ranchers began to raise hay to feed their herds on their own land, bringing the era of the Open Range to an end Westward Migration, Settlement, and Homesteading the Plains Great Plains were the last part of Continental US to be settled due to it being perceived as too dry to farm and to it begin set aside for Indians 1841 Preemption Act allowed “squatters” who had set up homes and farms on public land to buy it cheaply, setting stage for the 1862 Homestead Act, which offered 160 acres of land to anyone willing to live on it for five years, dig a well, and build a road Most earlier settlers were men, with women following as farms and homesteads were established Settlers faced harsh conditions (weather, Indians, isolation, plagues of locusts, etc.;) lack of wood forced many to build using mud bricks Barbed Wire and the Drill Plow were inventions that made it possible to settle the plains Topic 3.2 Chinese Immigrants in the West Mexican-Americans in the West Chinese faced Jim Crow-style Mexican-Americans faced discrimination as their land discrimination in 1860s/70s transitioned from Mexican to US Control 1879 California law banned hiring of Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo guaranteed property Chinese Immigrants and set up rights of Mexicans who lived in annexed areas, but segregated schools many still were forced off their land due to Chinese Exclusion Act banned Chinese paperwork or proof-of-ownership issues from entering US or applying for Groups such as the Santa Fe Ring used the courts to citizenship harass and disenfranchise landowners Legal battles were waged for years Militant pro-Mexican groups such as Las Gorras resulting in overturning of Exclusion Act in Blancas fought back by destroying fences and 1898, but issues remained burning homes of adversaries Tension over Resources Prejudice & Discrimination Population Growth Ends Frontier Opposing land-use goals Ranchers viewed farmers Last Great Land Rush, which between ranchers, (“Sodbusters”) unfavorably settled Oklahoma (“Sooners”) miners, and farmers led Disputes over idea of public took place in 1889 to conflict land led to El Paso Salt War in 1890 Census revealed not a Sabotage and 1877, resulting in regulation single square mile that was skirmishes were and privatization of that uninhabited, leading to the common industry frontier being declared Conflicts began to center Ethnic and racial tensions were “Closed” on acquisition and use of common, often focuses on Controversies over land use, water, which remained Chinese, Mexican, and Black disposition of Indians, and unregulated citizens resource management remained  Topic 3.3 Corruption under Pres. Ulysses S. Grant Political parties basically held even strength for the last 30yrs of the 19thC, making elections close and passage of laws difficult Pres Grant, a Radical Republican, took a strong stand against Southern resistance to Reconstruction but was ineffective Grant awarded friends and business associates with high-level admin jobs; his brother-in-law and his VP, Schuyler Colfax, were embroiled in scandal Reform-minded Rs broke away from Grant in 1872 election, forming Liberal Republican Party w/goals of ending corruption and ending military occupation of the South Grant easily won reelection, but constant scandal weakened public confidence Scandals erupted in gov’t at all levels, Federal, State, and Local, to which Grant turned a blind eye Corruption in subsequent administrations Subsequent Presidents (Rutherford B Hayes, Benjamin Harrison, Chester A Arthur) were regarded as weak and ineffective In 1884 fmr Buffalo Mayor/NY Governor Grover Cleveland became first Democrat elected since pre-Civil War Cleveland was known for being honest and forthright, even when calling out corruption in his own party He lost his bid for re-election in 1888, but came back and won in 1892  Topic 3.3 “Spoils System” Jobs Political Cartoons Alert the Public Jobs were awarded to party members as favors w/o Many Americans saw nothing wrong with politicians regard to qualifications rewarding their friends Parties developed Political “Machines”, run by Writers and cartoonist such as Mark Twain and Bosses, that influenced hiring and cashflow across all Joseph Keppler sought to highlight corruption to make levels of gov’t the public aware of how bad it was Ex: Tammany Hall (NYC,) Pendergast Machine Thomas Nast wrote a series of cartoons exposing (Kansas City) corruption in Tammany Hall and resulting in arrest of Machines gained power through solving low-level Politcal Boss William Tweed, who escaped and fled to problems and assisting immigrants to generate loyalty Spain before being recaptured because he was Machines made political parties far-reaching and recognized from Nast’s cartoons strong Civil Service Reform Efforts The Pendleton Civil Service Act Reformers worked to establish Civil Service system in Passed in 1883 to establish a Civil Service which jobs were awarded based on qualifications and Commission and exam to be taken by prospective merit Civil Servants Politicians were concerned about cashflow and about Signed into law by Pres Chester A Arthur, who being able to attract people to work for them without assumed the Presidency after the assassination of having spoils system jobs to aware Pres Garfield Pres Rutherford B Hayes came out against the spoils Initially the act covered only a small portion of system and placed reformers in office but was so low-level employees but grew to redefine Civil Service strongly criticized by his party that he didn’t seek and ultimately weakened the spoils system reelection Pres James Garfield was assassinated by a man who felt he was owed a job and didn’t get one Topic 3.3 Tariffs and Monetary Policy Economic stagnation and banks being overextended (mostly on railroad loans) caused the Panic of 1873 in which banks closed and unemployment rose Tariffs and Monetary Policy were the two mechanisms by which the gov’t could stabilize the economy Both major parties were committed to backing US currency w/treasury reserves (Gold Standard) but were sharply divided on Tariffs Rs favored high tariffs to eliminate competition, while Ds favored low tariffs to keep consumer prices down and keep foreign markets open for American farmers and manufacturers Coinage Act of 1873 established that US currency would be backed by both Gold and Silver, enabling more dollars to be put in circulation, and the Bland-Allison Act of 1878 set a floor for how much of the dollar supply would be backed by silver Once the economy had fully-stabilized the 1900 Gold Standard Act reset gold as the currency standard Topic 3.4 Farm Debt Rises Big Business and Farming Low crop prices plus high transportation Farmers blamed monopolistic railroads that costs put many farmers in debt. overcharged them and banks that charged Cotton, Corn, and Wheat all were devalued high interest rates for their plight by >200%; corn was so devalued that it cost Sarecroppers and tenant farmers faced more to grow than it was worth, leading to it dishonesty from merchants and landlords being burned as fuel As leaders were elected more and more Many farmers had to mortgage their farms from urban areas and industrial states, (take loans out on them) just to make ti from farmers felt unrepresented in America year-to-year The Grange and the “Grange Laws” The Grange, at first known as the “Patrons of Husbandry,” was a social and lobbying organization formed by farmer Oliver Kelley in 1867 to address the problems of farmers In 1870, after lobbying by Grange members, IL/MN/WI enacted laws establishing maximum allowable rates for shipping and storing grain (“Grange Laws”) Grange Laws were challenged in court unsuccessfully (Munn v Illinois, 1876, which upheld right of states to regulate private industry) and successfully (Wabash v Illinois, 1886, which ruled states could not regulate interstate commerce) Grange Laws and subsequent challenges instrumental in creation of Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) Topic 3.4 Farmers vs Railroads Grange declined politically after 1870s but farm problems remained TX farmers organized into Farmers Alliance, which networked with other similar organizations in other Southern states Farmers Alliance lobbied gov’t to regulate bank interest rates on loans and lower railroad freight prices to make it easier for them to sell crops outside the South Railroads countered w/argument that they had to charge high prices to recoup the enormous costs of building and running the railroads, and that they had to charge more for short hauls than long hauls due to lack of competition Interstate Commerce Act (1887) addressed some of these issues with limited success Alliances Encourage Reform Alliances such as Southern Farmers Alliance formed cooperatives to sell crops, lobbied for gov’t backed low-interest loans, and led boycotts of manufacturers who they felt price-gouged equipment and goods While at first open to all races, Southern Farmers and other alliances soon split along racial lines, w/Colored Farmers Alliance formed to advocate for black farmers Both black and white farmers faced the same difficulties, but cooperation was difficult Topic 3.4 Populist Goals The Populist Party – Early Impacts Populist Party formed as grassroots effort to elect Populist Party did not win White reform-minded local candidates in 1892 and quickly spread House but received >1m votes and to National elections elected 3 governors, 5 Senators, and Party concerns included corruption, gov’t responsiveness, 10 Congressmen and the monetary supply In 1894 midterms Populists expanded Populaist called for coinage of silver (Silver Standard,) gov’t base and began to put pressure on takeover of railroads, and and women’s suffrage Rs and Ds to consider their policy Union veteran General James Weaver (IA) and former proposals Confederate General James Field (VA) ran for President and Populism struggled in the South, VP on the Populist ticket in 1892; ticket represented an effort where Ds used racists fears to to unite Northern Republicans and Southern Democrats diminish their appeal William Jennings Bryan and the Decline of Populism In 1893 a 4-year long depression and period of labor unrest shook the nation Populists rode momentum of 1892 and 1894 elections into optimism over White House prospects in 1896 1896 Democratic Presidential nominee William Jennings Bryan, a lawyer from Illinois, advocated for many Populist causes, including coinage of silver and farmers rights Bryan’s nomination forced Populists into a decision of whether to nominate a candidate to run against him with the same policies, or consolidate support by endorsing his candidacy; they declined to run a candidate and instead endorsed Bryan The Democrat-Populist coalition ran a grassroots campaign against Republican William McKinley, who portrayed Populists as racists, pot-stirrers, and potential dictators McKinley beat Bryan in 1896 and again in 1900, with Populists failing to win a single state outside the South Most Populists reverted back to the Democratic Party, but Populist success forced mainstream candidates to work hard to campaign directly to the people, and laid the groundwork for other third-party efforts, including the early 1900s Progressive Party