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What was the primary goal of the Liberal Republican Party formed in the 1872 election?

To promote high tariffs and protect domestic industry

To support Gran'ts policies on reconstruction

To end corruption and military occupation of the South (correct)

To advocate for increased civil service positions

Which President took a strong stance against Southern resistance to Reconstruction yet was considered ineffective?

Ulysses S. Grant (correct)

Rutherford B. Hayes

James Garfield

Grover Cleveland

What act established a Civil Service Commission and exam to select government employees based on merit?

The Civil Service Reform Act

The Coinage Act of 1873

The Pendleton Civil Service Act (correct)

The Bland-Allison Act

What was a significant consequence of the Panic of 1873?

Closure of banks and rising unemployment Signup and view all the answers

How did farmers generally perceive the monopolistic railroads during economic hard times?

As major contributors to their rising debts Signup and view all the answers

What key issue divided the Republican and Democratic parties regarding tariffs during the late 19th century?

The level of tariffs to support local businesses Signup and view all the answers

Which corruption scandal involved Tammany Hall and resulted in public outrage?

The Tweed Ring scandal Signup and view all the answers

Why did President Rutherford B. Hayes face criticism during his presidency?

For attempting civil service reform Signup and view all the answers

What was the purpose of the Coinage Act of 1873?

To back US currency with both gold and silver Signup and view all the answers

What did President Chester A. Arthur accomplish in relation to civil service reform?

He signed the Pendleton Civil Service Act into law Signup and view all the answers

What primarily drove the growth of mining towns in the American West?

Discoveries of gold and silver ore Signup and view all the answers

What significant impact did the Transcontinental Railroad have on the western United States?

It facilitated the rise of new towns and development along the rail lines. Signup and view all the answers

Which invention helped to end the era of the open range for cattle ranching?

The barbed wire Signup and view all the answers

Which act allowed settlers to purchase public land after establishing homes and farms?

The Preemption Act Signup and view all the answers

What faced Chinese immigrants in the West during the late 19th century?

Discrimination and segregation in schools Signup and view all the answers

What was a consequence of the dispute over land-use between ranchers and farmers?

Regulation and privatization of the salt industry Signup and view all the answers

What characterized the economic environment in mining towns?

Subsistence-level services for miners Signup and view all the answers

What challenge did settlers in the Great Plains face when trying to establish farms?

Adverse weather and lack of resources Signup and view all the answers

What shifted the focus of the cattle industry in the 1880s?

Expansion of railroads and barbed wire usage Signup and view all the answers

Which group often faced the most severe discrimination during land transitions in the West?

Mexican-Americans Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant outcome of the policy of relocating American Indians from their lands?

It resulted in numerous conflicts with settlers. Signup and view all the answers

What form of labor was predominantly used in the construction of the Transcontinental Railroad?

Chinese laborers Signup and view all the answers

What was one consequence of the Sand Creek Massacre?

It intensified conflicts between Native Americans and U.S. troops. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following was a significant reason for the decline of Native American resistance in the late 19th century?

The extermination of buffalo herds and leaders. Signup and view all the answers

What facilitated the end of the frontier, as revealed by the 1890 Census?

The declaration that no uninhabited land remained Signup and view all the answers

Why did the cattle drives become a significant part of American Western culture?

They enabled the transportation of cattle to railroads. Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary aim of the Dawes Act of 1887?

To assimilate Native Americans into American society. Signup and view all the answers

What event did the phrase 'Long Walk' refer to in Navajo history?

The forced relocation of Navajos to New Mexico. Signup and view all the answers

Which battle was a major victory for the Sioux against U.S. troops?

Battle of Little Bighorn. Signup and view all the answers

What was the goal of the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868?

To establish peace and define Indian territories. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best describes the traditional view of land among Native Americans?

Land was regarded as a source of spiritual and communal bounty. Signup and view all the answers

What ultimately characterized the fate of the Nez Perce Indians?

They were forced onto a reservation despite initial resistance. Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the main criticisms of the reservation system?

It failed to recognize tribal sovereignty. Signup and view all the answers

What was the purpose of the Ghost Dance ritual among the Sioux?

To drive out white settlers and restore buffalo populations. Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant impact of the Black Hills Gold Rush?

It provoked violent resistance from Sioux tribes. Signup and view all the answers

What measure was taken by the U.S. government in response to the popularity of the Ghost Dance?

They attempted to suppress the movement, culminating in violence. Signup and view all the answers

Which organization was formed to address the problems faced by farmers in the late 19th century?

The Grange Signup and view all the answers

What major legislative action did the Grange successfully promote in the early 1870s?

Enact Grange Laws setting maximum rates for shipping Signup and view all the answers

What was a consequence of the case Wabash v Illinois in 1886?

Interstate Commerce Commission was established. Signup and view all the answers

What economic issue was the Farmers Alliance particularly focused on?

Regulating bank interest rates on loans Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following did the Populist Party advocate for?

The coinage of silver Signup and view all the answers

In the 1896 Presidential election, the Populist Party endorsed which candidate?

William Jennings Bryan Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant setback for the Populist Party in the late 1890s?

Their candidate failed to secure any state victories outside the South Signup and view all the answers

What challenge did farmers face due to high railroad freight prices?

Inability to sell crops profitably Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the goals of the Southern Farmers Alliance?

To form cooperatives for crop selling Signup and view all the answers

Which political party was formed in response to the struggles of farmers in the 1890s?

Populist Party Signup and view all the answers

What was a main issue that caused tension within alliances such as the Southern Farmers Alliance?

Racial divisions among members Signup and view all the answers

What did the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 aim to address?

High railroad freight rates Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary reason farmers felt unrepresented in America during the late 19th century?

Elected leaders were mainly from urban areas Signup and view all the answers

Which was a significant factor that led to the decline of the Grange political power after the 1870s?

Increased focus on urban issues Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

American Indians in the West

250,000 American Indians lived west of the Mississippi River in 1865.
They were treated as obstacles to westward expansion by the government.
A policy of moving Indians out of areas to be settled by white Americans began before the Civil War under President Andrew Jackson.
In 1834, the government limited trade with Indians and restricted settler access to the "Great American Desert" west of the Mississippi River.
The discovery of gold and silver in Indian lands, along with the desire for a transcontinental railroad, changed government policy.
By the late 1860s, the government started establishing Indian Reservations, limiting their movement and access to resources.
Disease and depletion of buffalo populations further stressed Indian tribes.
Many Tribes viewed land as a source of bounty rather than individual wealth, differing from European settler perspective.

Conflicts on the Plains

During the Civil War, the Sioux Indians clashed with white settlers in Minnesota, killing over 400. The government forcibly moved the Sioux from Minnesota to the Dakotas.
These events led to broader conflict on the Plains, with Indians attacking settlements and stagecoach lines.
In 1864, John Chivington's Colorado Militia massacred over 150 Cheyenne and Arapaho men, women, and children at Sand Creek, despite being given permission by the fort's commander to camp there.
Following the Civil War, federal troops were sent west to suppress Indian rebellions – often allowed plundering of Indian resources.

Peace Efforts Fail

The government announced plans for a road through Sioux hunting grounds to connect mining towns in Montana.
In 1866, Red Cloud, a Sioux warrior, led a group that ambushed and killed Captain William Fetterman's troop.
The government believed peace could only be achieved by confining Indians to reservations and assimilating them into Anglo culture.
The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 was an attempt to secure peace by abandoning plans for the mine road and settlements. It offered the Sioux and other tribes the Black Hills and infrastructure in exchange for residing on reservations.
Peace plans often failed due to poor-quality land offered, lack of trust between parties, corruption, and inadequate government support.

The Long Walk of the Navajos

The government dispatched frontiersman Kit Carson to subdue the Navajos in 1863.
After destroying most of their crops and livestock, Carson forced 8,000 Navajos to undertake the "Long Walk" to New Mexico, a journey of exile and hardship.
In New Mexico, they were confined to land unsuitable for farming and placed near their enemies, the Apaches.
After four years, the government allowed the Navajos to return home.

Southern Plains Indians Surrender

The Kiowas and Comanches were eventually defeated in the "Red River War." This conflict erupted due to violations of the 1867 Treaty of Medicine Lodge, which obligated Americans to stay off Indian hunting grounds and not hunt buffalo.
The Indians attacked Texans in June 1874, surrendering a year later.
The end of the war opened the Texas panhandle to settlement and marked the end of the Southern buffalo herd.

Battle of the Little Bighorn

The Black Hills Gold Rush of 1875 drew gold prospectors to South Dakota and Montana.
Part of the Black Hills was reserved for Indians under the Treaty of Fort Laramie.
Sitting Bull, a Lakota leader, assembled Sioux troops to drive out the prospectors, leading to a response from General George Custer's Cavalry.
The Indians, led by Crazy Horse, attacked Custer and his men at the Battle of Little Bighorn, resulting in their entire defeat.
Sitting Bull escaped to Canada; Crazy Horse was captured and killed.

Fighting Concludes

In 1877, the government moved the Nez Perce Indians to a reservation in Idaho to create room for settlers.
Many Nez Perce had already adopted certain aspects of Anglo culture, becoming ranchers and embracing Christianity.
Chief Joseph led his people to a reservation in Oklahoma to avoid fighting federal troops. They fought for years to regain their land in legal battles.

Indian Resistance Ends

The loss of leaders and destruction of resources forced many Indian tribes to discontinue fighting, turning to spiritual pursuits.
The Ghost Dance ritual gained popularity, seeking to drive away settlers and restore the buffalo.
In 1890, the government sought to suppress the Ghost Dance by arresting Sitting Bull, leading to his death and other casualties.
Some Sioux fled to the Badlands, where they were massacred at Wounded Knee in 1890, despite being significantly outnumbered and outgunned.
The "Ghost Dance War" was the last major Indian resistance in the West.

Assimilation, Criticism, and Americanization

The Reservation system is widely considered a failure, both economically and socially.
Critics like Helen Hunt Jackson (author of "A Century of Dishonor") vocally condemned government actions and policies toward Indians.
In 1871, the federal government passed a law dissolving tribal recognition, forcing Indians to negotiate as individuals to encourage assimilation.
The Dawes Act of 1887 ended tribal landholdings and divided reservations among individual Indians, introducing a Western concept of property ownership.
This system protected Indian land from unscrupulous investors, but much of it was deemed worthless and often lost to settlers.
Traditional Indian practices were banned, and Anglo-Indian schools were opened, leading to a significant decline in Native American cultures.

Mining Towns Expand

Discoveries of gold and silver ore spurred the rapid growth of mining towns across the West (Colorado, California, Alaska, etc.).
These towns typically provided basic services and the means for miners to buy equipment and trade their gold and silver.
Mining towns were often dangerous and lawless, with churches and vigilante groups providing some structure.
They thrived until the ore ran out, causing many to become ghost towns.
Mining generated pollution, including fill/slag and wastewater that contaminated drinking sources.
Despite environmental consequences, the government continued to encourage mining through land grants and tax breaks.

Mining Becomes Big Business

Early mining was done by individuals, especially when ores were found near the surface.
As deposits became deeper, companies with industrial equipment dug tunnels over large areas for mining.
Mining companies often exacerbated environmental concerns.

The Transcontinental Railroad

Business interests had been pushing for a transcontinental railroad since before the Civil War. Private ownership in the United States made this endeavor challenging, unlike in Europe where railroads were often publicly owned.
Congress supported the transcontinental railroad through loans and land grants.
In 1863, the Central Pacific Railroad began building eastward from Sacramento, CA, while the Union Pacific Railroad began building westward from Omaha, NE.
Construction was dangerous, leading to injuries and deaths due to accidents involving landslides, explosives, and other hazards. Many immigrants worked on the railway projects.
In 1869, the Union Pacific and Central Pacific lines met at Promontory Point, Utah, completing the Transcontinental Railroad.

Railroads Spur Settlement and Growth

Additional transcontinental lines were built, including a private line from St. Paul, MN to Seattle, offering lower fares than government-sponsored lines.
Towns and settlement spread along the railway routes as passenger and freight traffic increased.
Land speculators acquired vast tracts of land anticipating railroad development, leading to further pressure on Indians to surrender their land.
Railroads facilitated the closing of the Western frontier and helped in the admittance of ten new Western states between 1864-1896.

Longhorns and Vaqueros

Before Texas statehood, Mexican ranchers raised longhorn cattle under an open-range system, identifying their cattle with brands.
Vaqueros (Mexican cowboys) used horses to manage, round-up, and move cattle.
American Cowboy Culture arose from the techniques and practices of the Mexican Vaqueros and the subsequent cattle drives that emerged.

Cowboys and Cattle Drives

After roundup, cowboys drove cattle over vast distances to railroad depots for shipment east.
Cattle drives were long and perilous, often taking weeks or months.
Cowboy groups included white, Black, and Hispanic men.

Cow Towns

Similar to mining towns, cow towns sprang up along cattle drive routes to provide services for cowboys.
Larger cow towns like Dodge City, Kansas, created markets for buying and selling cattle, providing cowboys payment at the end of their drives.
Western rodeo culture originated within these cow towns.

The End of the Open Range

Several million cattle were driven north through open ranges in the 15 years after the Civil War.
The cattle industry changed in the 1880s due to the expansion of railroads, the invention of barbed wire, and overproduction of beef.
Farmers and ranchers began raising hay on their land to feed their herds, effectively ending the era of open range cattle grazing.

Westward Migration, Settlement, and Homesteading the Plains

The Great Plains represented the last portion of the Continental United States to be settled, as it was perceived as too dry for farming and was set aside for Indian territories.
The 1841 Preemption Act enabled “squatters” who had settled on public land to purchase it cheaply. This paved the way for the 1862 Homestead Act, which granted 160 acres of land to anyone willing to live on it for five years, dig a well, and build a road.
Most early settlers were men, with women often following later as farms and homesteads were established.
Settlers faced harsh conditions (weather, Indians, isolation, locust plagues), and the lack of wood forced many to build with mud bricks.
Barbed wire and the drill plow were inventions that facilitated settlement on the Great Plains.

Chinese Immigrants in the West

Chinese immigrants faced Jim Crow-style discrimination in the 1860s and 1870s.
In 1879, California enacted a law prohibiting the hiring of Chinese immigrants and established segregated schools.
The Chinese Exclusion Act prohibited Chinese immigrants from entering the US or applying for citizenship.
Legal battles over these discriminatory policies lasted for years, with the Exclusion Act being overturned in 1898. However, issues and prejudices persisted.

Mexican-Americans in the West

Mexican-Americans faced discrimination after the Mexican-American War and the annexation of their territories.
The Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo guaranteed property rights for Mexicans living in the annexed territories but many were forced off their land due to bureaucratic challenges and proof-of-ownership issues.
Groups like the Santa Fe Ring exploited legal avenues to harass and disenfranchise Mexican landowners.
Militant Mexican groups like Las Gorras Blancas retaliated by destroying fences and burning the homes of their adversaries.

Tension Over Resources

Land-use goals of ranchers, miners, and farmers often clashed, leading to conflict.
The El Paso Salt War of 1877, sparked by disputes over public land, resulted in regulation and privatization of the industry.
Sabotage and skirmishes were common, with the acquisition and use of water emerging as a significant point of conflict.
Conflict over access and control of water resources was a recurring issue.

Prejudice & Discrimination

Ranchers held a negative view of farmers, often referring to them as "Sodbusters."
Ethnic and racial tensions were prevalent, often directed at Chinese, Mexican, and Black Americans.

Population Growth Ends the Frontier

The last great land rush occurred in 1889 when settlers rushed to claim homesteads in Oklahoma, often referred to as "Sooners."
The 1890 census revealed that there wasn't a single square mile of uninhabited land in the U.S., leading to an official declaration of the Western frontier as "Closed."
Despite the closing of the frontier, controversies surrounding land use, disposition of Indians, and resource management persisted.

Corruption Under President Ulysses S. Grant

Both major political parties held near-equal strength during the last three decades of the 19th century, resulting in close elections and difficulty in passing legislation.
President Ulysses S. Grant, a Radical Republican, opposed Southern resistance to Reconstruction but was ineffective in addressing widespread corruption.
Grant appointed friends and business associates to high administration positions, with his brother-in-law and his Vice President, Schuyler Colfax, being implicated in scandals.
In 1872, reform-minded Republicans broke away from Grant and joined the Liberal Republican Party, aiming to stop corruption and end military occupation of the South.
Grant easily won re-election but the constant scandals weakened public confidence.
Corruption plagued all levels of government – federal, state, and local – to which Grant turned a blind eye.

Corruption in Subsequent Administrations

Subsequent Presidents (Rutherford B. Hayes, Benjamin Harrison, Chester A. Arthur) were perceived as weak and ineffective.
In 1884, former Buffalo Mayor and New York Governor Grover Cleveland became the first Democrat elected since the pre-Civil War era.
Cleveland was known for honesty and outspokenness against corruption, even within his own party.
He lost his bid for re-election in 1888, but returned to win in 1892.

“Spoils System” Jobs

Jobs were awarded to party members as favors without regard for their qualifications.
Political parties developed "machines" run by bosses who controlled hiring and cash flow in government positions. Examples: Tammany Hall (New York City), Pendergast Machine (Kansas City).
These "machines" gained leverage by addressing low-level problems and assisting immigrants to build a base of loyalty.
Political machines strengthened individual political parties by extending their reach.

Political Cartoons Alert the Public

Many Americans initially believed that political favors were a normal practice.
Writers and cartoonists like Mark Twain and Joseph Keppler aimed to expose corruption and raise public awareness.
Thomas Nast created a series of cartoons exposing corruption in Tammany Hall, ultimately leading to the arrest of political boss William Tweed. He fled to Spain but was recaptured and convicted, partly due to his recognition from Nast's cartoons.

Civil Service Reform Efforts

Reformers worked to establish a civil service system where jobs were awarded based on merit and qualifying exams.
Politicians were reluctant, fearing loss of cash flow and control over patronage.
President Rutherford B. Hayes opposed the spoils system and placed reformers in office, but was heavily criticized by his own party, causing him to withdraw from another term.
President James Garfield was assassinated by a man who felt he was owed a job and had been denied.

The Pendleton Civil Service Act

Passed in 1883, the Pendleton Civil Service Act established a Civil Service Commission and introduced examinations for applicants.
The act was signed into law by President Chester A. Arthur, who succeeded President Garfield.
Initially, the act covered only a small percentage of low-level employees, but it expanded over time, diminishing the spoils system and redefining the nature of civil service work.

Tariffs and Monetary Policy

The Panic of 1873, caused by bank overextension (largely on railroad loans), resulted in widespread economic stagnation and unemployment.
Tariffs and monetary policy were two mechanisms by which the government could stabilize the economy.
Both major parties committed to using Treasury reserves (Gold Standard) to back the US dollar. However, sharp divides existed regarding tariffs.
Republicans favored high tariffs to reduce competition, while Democrats favored lower tariffs to keep consumer prices down and maintain open foreign markets for American farmers and manufacturers.
The Coinage Act of 1873 established the US dollar to be backed by both gold and silver, allowing for an increase in currency circulation. The Bland-Allison Act of 1878 set a minimum requirement for the amount of silver backing the dollar.
After economic stability was achieved, the Gold Standard Act of 1900 solidified gold as the primary standard for the US dollar.

Farm Debt Rises

Low crop prices and expensive transportation costs led to widespread indebtedness among farmers.

Big Business & Farming

Farmers often blamed monopolistic railroads for their financial woes.
The government was largely focused on the needs of Big Business and was too focused on industrial concerns to focus much effort on helping farmers.

Farmers' Issues

Farmers faced significant challenges in the late 19th century due to overproduction, low crop prices, and high costs for transportation and supplies.
Crops like cotton, corn, and wheat were devalued by over 200%, leading to a situation where it cost more to grow corn than it was worth.
Many farmers were forced to mortgage their farms to survive, only to face high-interest rates and dishonest practices from merchants and landlords.
There was a lack of representation for farmers in government as leaders were increasingly elected from urban and industrial areas.

The Grange and Grange Laws

The Grange, originally known as the "Patrons of Husbandry," was a social and lobbying organization formed by farmer Oliver Kelley in 1867 to address the concerns of farmers.
In 1870, the Grange successfully lobbied for laws in Illinois, Minnesota, and Wisconsin that established maximum allowable rates for shipping and storing grain, known as "Grange Laws."
These laws faced legal challenges with mixed results. While upheld in Munn v Illinois (1876), later rulings like Wabash v Illinois (1886) limited their scope.
The Grange Laws and their related legal battles were instrumental in the creation of the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC).

Farmers vs. Railroads

The Grange declined politically after the 1870s, but the problems faced by farmers remained.
Farmers in Texas organized into the Farmers Alliance, which connected with similar groups in other Southern states.
The Farmers Alliance advocated for government regulation of bank interest rates and lower railroad freight prices to aid in the sale of crops.
Railroads argued that high prices were necessary to cover construction and operating costs, and that short hauls were more expensive due to limited competition.
The Interstate Commerce Act was passed in 1887, addressing some of these issues with limited success.

Alliances and Reform Efforts

Farmers' Alliances, like the Southern Farmers Alliance, established cooperatives to sell crops, campaigned for government-backed low-interest loans, and organized boycotts of manufacturers they felt were exploiting them.
While initially open to all races, the Southern Farmers Alliance and other groups eventually split along racial lines, seeing the formation of the Colored Farmers Alliance advocating for Black farmers.
Both Black and white farmers faced similar challenges, but cooperation was difficult due to existing racial inequalities.

The Populist Party

The Populist Party emerged from a grassroots movement in 1892, aiming to elect reform-minded candidates locally and nationally.
Concerns of the Populists included corruption, government responsiveness, and the monetary supply.
They advocated for the coinage of silver (bimetallism), government control of railroads, and women's suffrage.
Union veteran General James Weaver and former Confederate General James Field ran on the Populist ticket in 1892, aiming to build a coalition between Northern Republicans and Southern Democrats.
The Populist Party gained significant traction in the 1892 and 1894 elections, electing 3 governors, 5 senators, and 10 congressmen, and influencing major political parties to consider their policy proposals.
The Populist Party faced difficulties in the South, where Democrats used racist anxieties to diminish their appeal.

William Jennings Bryan and Populism's Decline

A prolonged economic depression and labor unrest in the early 1890s fueled public support for Populist ideas.
For the 1896 presidential election, the Democratic Party nominated William Jennings Bryan, a lawyer from Illinois, who shared many Populist views, including support for silver coinage and farmers' rights.
The Populist Party faced a decision: nominate their own candidate or endorse Bryan. They chose to endorse Bryan, forging a coalition between Populists and Democrats.
The Democrat-Populist coalition campaigned against Republican William McKinley. McKinley portrayed the Populists as racial agitators and potential dictators.
McKinley won the 1896 election and again in 1900, with Populists failing to win a single state outside the South.
Many Populists returned to the Democratic Party. However, the Populist movement's success forced mainstream candidates to connect with the electorate more directly and helped lay the groundwork for future third-party political efforts, including the Progressive Party in the early 20th century.

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