APUSH Summer Assignment 2024 PDF

Dr. Lutz AP United States History The Wardlaw + Hartridge School Summer Assignme...

Dr. Lutz AP United States History The Wardlaw + Hartridge School Summer Assignment Instructions: Read and take notes on Period 1 (Modules 1-1, 1-2, 1-3, & 1-4) in the attached PDF version of the textbook. Notes are required to be handwritten and on looseleaf or notebook paper. This assignment will be graded as a HW grade. Students are required to work individually on this assignment. This assignment must be submitted at our first class in September. There are NO extensions, and NO late work will be excepted. Assignments not submitted on time and in person at the start of class will receive a zero. Do not wait until the last minute to start these notes. They will take time. Our textbook: You do not need to purchase the textbook for this course. The school will purchase the textbook for you, and you will get your hard copy in September. For this summer assignment, you will use the attached pdf file. Try not to be intimidated by the length of the pdf, the text is very big since I had to convert the file from an EPUB and there are activities you can skip; I outline those below. You can do this! How to Take HW Notes: In this course, you will learn a lot of the course content at home thorough the HW reading assignments. It is crucial for your success in this class and on the exam for you to take your HW readings seriously and take thorough notes. The process of thoughtfully reading and taking notes is an excellent way to learn material. Don't forget to think as you read and ask yourself questions as you go. The process of taking notes matters here. You have two options for how to complete HW notes in the textbook. - You can take bullet style notes where you have sets of bulleted sentences and phrases per section within each chapter. Or you can use the Cornell style of notetaking. - You must label the sections headings with module numbers and titles regardless of if you use bullet style notes or Cornell-style. - Each paragraph should in each of the unit sections should be covered in your notes with one or two bullets. If you see a graphic or illustration that helps you understand the material, you should take notes on that too. - However, you do not need to write down every detail in every paragraph. It is your job to learn to sort, synthesize, and summarize the material. Notetaking is a skill you will get better at in this class. - You are not required to do any of the primary source or other activities - like the AP Thinking Historically Activities. You can skip those in your HW notes assignments and go back to them as study activities. - HW notes should ALWAYS be in your own words. If you copy wording directly from the textbook, you need to use quotation marks and a page citation. Always summarize in your own words, as precisely as possible. Try to not simplify things into good or bad, think about action and consequences.  Fabric of a Nation A BRIEF HISTORY WITH SKILLS AND SOURCES FOR THE AP® U.S. HISTORY COURSE Jason Stacy Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville Matthew Ellington Ruben S. Ayala High School, Chino Hills, California Adapted from Exploring American Histories, Third Edition by Nancy A. Hewitt and Steven F. Lawson AP® is a trademark registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse, this product. Period 1: 1491–1607 Europeans Make Claims in the Americas The Codex Mendoza, c. 1540 These images are taken from the Codex Mendoza, a collection of histories of American Indian leaders in Central America and a catalog of tribute they paid to the Spanish Crown. The illustrations shown here are of ceremonial outfits and shields acquired by the Spanish as tribute. Description  The page on the left shows images of ceremonial outfits and shields. A list of collections of American Indian leaders who gave tribute to the Spanish Crown are on the left and the bottom including crops, vegetables, fishes, animals, and their skin. The shields and clothing of the triple alliance are at the center. The page made out of animal skin on the right also shows outfits and shields acquired by the Spanish. Over 25,000 years ago, Asian peoples started migrating to the Americas by land and sea. Major migrations occurred 12,000–14,000 years ago. Over time these peoples developed an astonishing array of cultures and societies, from small hunting-and-gathering bands to complex empires. By the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries of the common era, extensive commercial and political networks existed among the Mississippians, the Aztecs, and the Incas, although only the latter two continued to thrive by the late 1400s. In southern Europe, too, during the fifteenth century, economic, cultural, and political advances fueled interest in long-distance trade and exploration. Italy and Portugal led these efforts, and their complete control of trade routes across the Mediterranean and around Africa to Asia led Spain to look west in hopes of gaining access to China and the Indies. In doing so, the Spanish unexpectedly came into contact with the Americas. When Spanish explorers happened upon Caribbean islands and the nearby mainland, they created contacts between European and American populations whose lives would be dramatically transformed in a matter of decades. While native residents of the Americas were sometimes eager to trade with the newcomers and to form alliances against their traditional enemies, they fought against those they considered invaders. Yet some of the most significant invaders — plants, pigs, and especially germs — were impossible to defend against. Even Europeans whose primary goal was conversion to Christianity brought diseases that devastated local populations, and plants and animals that transformed their landscape, diet, and traditional ways of life. From the 1490s to the 1590s, the most dramatic and devastating changes for native peoples occurred in Mexico, the West Indies, Central America, and parts of South America. But events there also foreshadowed what would happen throughout the Americas. As Spanish conquistadors and European competitors explored, they carried sufficient germs, seeds, and animals to transform native societies even before Europeans established permanent settlements in North America. As American Indian populations died out in some regions and fended off conquest in others, the Spanish and Portuguese turned increasingly to the trade in enslaved Africans to provide the labor to produce enormously profitable items like sugar, coffee, and tobacco. PERIOD 1 PREVIEW Module AP® Thematic Focus 1-1: Geography and the Environment Diverse American Indian Geographic and environmental factors shaped the development of American Indian Societies societies, fostering diversity. The implementation of intensive agriculture and the cultivation of crops such as maize led to the formation of large and complex American Indian societies in Central America and the Andes Mountain region. Societies in other regions were often smaller, resulting in a diverse fabric of indigenous cultures. 1-2: America in the World Portugal and Spain Expand Their Relying on technological innovations and driven by a desire for trade and economic Reach competition, European countries began to fund voyages of exploration and conquest. Portugal secured trading posts in Africa as well as profitable ocean trade routes to the Middle East and Asia. Spain financed Christopher Columbus’s voyages to the Americas, opening the door to a New World for Europeans. Interactions between Columbus and American Indian societies in the Caribbean established patterns for future relations. 1-3: The Geography and the Environment Colombian Exchange The Columbian Exchange — of crops, animals, diseases, and more — shaped the development of both American Indian and European societies. Crops transplanted from the Americas led to the growth of Europe’s population, and the mineral wealth from the New World contributed to the transition from feudalism to capitalism in Europe. Yet for indigenous peoples in the Americas, the primary effect of the Columbian Exchange was the introduction of European diseases, which decimated the native population. The creation of an “Atlantic World” linking Europe, the Americas, and Africa in an economic system that relied on the forced labor of American Indians and Africans also sped up as Britain, France, and the Netherlands began to colonize. 1-4: Social Structures Spanish Colonial Society Spanish conquistadors used local allies and technological superiority to overpower the Aztecs and other powerful American Indian societies in Central and South America. As Spain built a large empire in the New World, it relied on the encomienda system to force American Indians to labor on Spanish plantations and introduced a caste system, which created a social hierarchy based on race. Over time, the harsh treatment of American Indians fostered debate within Spanish society and contributed to establishment of the mission system. Module 1-1 Diverse American Indian Societies LEARNING TARGETS By the end of this module, you should be able to: Describe the diverse societies that populated the Americas prior to European exploration. Explain causes of internal migration and patterns of settlement in the Western Hemisphere before 1600. Explain how geographic and environmental factors, as well as competition over natural resources, shaped American Indian communities prior to 1600. THEMATIC FOCUS Geography and the Environment Geographic and environmental factors shaped the development of American Indian societies, fostering diversity. The implementation of intensive agriculture and the cultivation of crops such as maize led to the formation of large and complex American Indian societies in Central America and the Andes Mountain region. Societies in other regions were often smaller, resulting in a diverse fabric of indigenous cultures. HISTORICAL REASONING FOCUS Comparison In everyday life, we often compare two or more things to understand each one better. For example, if you want to understand the weather today, it often helps to compare it to yesterday’s weather. Likewise, if you want to understand what everyday life is like for people in rural communities, it’s helpful to have a sense of what daily life is like for the average city dweller. Historians apply this same principle to their work, too: They use comparison to illuminate the similarities and differences between two or more historical events, individuals, groups, regions, developments, or concepts. TASK As you read this module, practice thinking comparatively about the relationships between and among the peoples, events, and concepts you encounter. Keep in mind that historical comparison is most effective when it takes into account both similarities and differences between two or more things. Your goal for this module is to consider things in relation to each other. As you read, keep track of what important aspects they share in common as well as where they diverge. The first people in the Americas almost certainly arrived as migrants from northeast Asia. Although the timing of these migrations remains in doubt, they likely began at least 25,000 years ago. It is also difficult to estimate the population of the Americas before contact with Europeans — estimates of its peak range from 37 million to 100 million, the vast majority of whom lived within a few hundred miles of the equator. Only around 4 to 7 million people lived in what would become the present-day United States. By the fifteenth century, like other regions of the world, the Americas were home to diverse societies, ranging from coastal fishing villages to nomadic hunter-gatherers to settled horticulturalists to large city-centered empires. MAP 1.1 The Settling of the Americas Beginning about 25,000 B.C.E., Asian peoples likely migrated to America across a land bridge after expanding glaciers lowered sea levels. Others probably followed the coastline in boats. As the glaciers retreated, ice-free corridors allowed migration into present-day Wisconsin, New Mexico, Florida, Central America, and Chile. In what ways did climate shape early native migrations? Description A callout box at the top of this map indicates: “Using a global projection, the cartographer has placed North America in the center of the map, but parts of four other continents appear.” This map shows that as the ice from the Ice Age lowered the level of the world’s oceans, a broad bridge of land was created between Siberia and Alaska (25,000–9,000 B.C). A callout box points to this area and notes: “Evidence indicates that peoples came from Asia to the Americas during the Ice Age, when the sea level was much lower than today and a large land bridge—labeled Beringia on the map—connected the continents. “ A red line maps the journey from Siberia over the land bridge to Alaska and down the western coast of Canada to a point in about Washington state, where one route breaks off toward the Rockies and the other route continues down toward California and around the southwestern part of what is now the U.S. Four major routes continue from this point: (1) along the western coast of current day Mexico, (2) along the eastern coast of current day Mexico and down through the central Americas, (3) through the plains of the U.S. and down through current day Florida, and (4) through the plains and up to the east coast of the U.S. at about current day Virginia. A callout box points to the migration line coming down from Alaska and notes: “Current scholarship holds that the migrating peoples initially traveled on a narrow strip of ice-free land along the Pacific coast. As the area between the Cordilleran and Laurentide ice sheets lost its cover of ice, probably between 14,000 and 12,000 B.C., migrants may also have used the inland routes from present-day Alaska to the American interior.” A callout box points to the route on the coast of western Mexico and notes: “Many groups, accustomed to living at the ocean’s edge, probably continued along this route, pushing ever southward into South America.” A massive ice sheet is shown covering most of present day Canada and Greenland. It is labeled “Laurentide ice sheet” in the south, “Greenland ice sheet” in the north, and  “Cordilleran ice sheet” on the west coast of Canada. A callout box points to it and notes: “As scholars learn more about the advances and retreats of the ice sheets, the camping sites of the migrating peoples, and changes in vegetation zones, a more complete picture of the peopling of the Americas will emerge.” Two types of ice sheets are shown on the map: Ice sheets, c. 16,000 B.C. and Ice sheets, c. 12,000 B.C. Various vegetation zones are shown on the map, including tundra, conifer forest, deciduous forest, prairie, and desert. Most migration routes exist in all the vegetation zones; however, routes in tundra are limited. The complex societies that emerged in the Americas were made possible by an agricultural revolution that began about 10,000 years ago when these societies established crop systems, domesticated animals, and developed tools. Between 8000 and 2000 B.C.E., some communities in the Americas established agricultural systems that encouraged more stable settlements and spurred population growth. Horticulture — a form of agriculture in which people work small plots of land with simple tools — became highly developed in the area of present-day Mexico. There, men and women developed improved strains of maize (corn). They also cultivated protein- rich beans, squash, tomatoes, potatoes, and manioc (a root vegetable) — this combination of crops not only offered an especially nutritious diet but also kept the soil fertile. Moreover, high yields produced surplus food that was stored or traded to neighboring communities. horticulture A form of agriculture in which people work small plots of land with simple tools. AP® TIP  Explain the impact of maize cultivation on various native peoples from South America, Central America, and North America. By 500 C.E., complex societies rooted in intensive agriculture began to thrive in the equatorial region, and by 1500 C.E. the spread of maize cultivation northward into the present-day American Southwest and beyond fostered economic developments that necessitated irrigation and led to the diversification of native societies. While these impressive civilizations arose on swamplands, grasslands, and in the mountains, small bands of hunters and gatherers also continued to thrive in deserts and forests. AP® THINKING HISTORICALLY Active Reading and Effective Note Taking In order to fully understand, analyze, and interpret history — including everything from historical documents and artifacts to retellings of events to definitions of key historical concepts — it is essential to read actively. Although this may sound difficult and time-consuming, all that’s required for active reading is to think about the meaning of what you read while you read it. Sometimes, we are able to allow a piece of writing, usually fiction, to carry us away, and it’s even possible to forget that you are reading at all. As the words fill your imagination, it can feel a bit like you are watching a movie or television show. Unlike fiction, history requires that you think about the text as you read it and write down your observations. If it is possible to do so, writing annotations in the margins of the text is a fast and efficient form of active reading. If you cannot write in your text, using sticky notes, writing in a notebook, or recording your notes on a digital device will also work. The following steps walk through one way to approach active reading. Step 1 Select a manageable section to read, and focus on interpreting it quickly Usually, a manageable amount is roughly a paragraph. Let’s break down one of the paragraphs you already read, in the introduction to Period 1, and see how you might take notes on it: When Spanish explorers happened upon Caribbean islands and the nearby mainland, they created contacts between European and American populations whose lives would be dramatically transformed in a matter of decades. While native residents of the Americas were sometimes eager to trade with the newcomers and to form alliances against their traditional enemies, they fought against those they considered invaders. Yet some of the most significant invaders — plants, pigs, and especially germs — were impossible to defend against. Even Europeans whose primary goal was conversion to Christianity brought diseases that devastated local populations, and plants and animals that transformed their landscape, diet, and traditional ways of life. Step 2 Decide which aspects of the section are important to remember, and write down the relevant information in your own words Usually a paragraph presents a claim the author is trying to prove by using evidence to support it. Both the central claim and the evidence are important to remember. Let’s take another look at the first sentence in step 1. Notice how it establishes a moment in time with the word “when.” While the sentence doesn’t pinpoint a specific date, the word “when” tells you that this is an event in which the subject of the sentence (in this case, the “Spanish”) does something of historical significance (“created contacts between Europeans and American populations”). Once you’ve worked this out, it’s time to write your brief version of it in a note — as an annotation in the margins next to the text source, on a sticky note placed over the paragraph, or in a notebook. If you take notes in the form of an outline, this sentence would be a bullet point under which the rest of the paragraph would appear as sub-categories. It may help to think of each of these sub-categories as evidence that helps establish the historical significance of the paragraph’s topic. Now, let’s take a closer look at the next sentence in the paragraph. This sentence tells you something about the “contacts” of the first sentence. The fact that this sentence begins with “while” signals that it establishes a contrast. When you see the word “while” at the beginning of a sentence, be prepared for it to “turn,” usually after a comma, and present a concept that contrasts with the first half of the sentence. In this case, the contrast is between the eagerness of the “residents of the Americas” to “trade” and “form alliances against … enemies” and their resistance to “those they considered invaders.” So, in this subcategory, the contacts between the Spanish and the people of the Caribbean islands were complex, involving both an eagerness to trade or form alliances and a willingness to resist perceived invaders. Finally, let’s turn to the last two sentences in the paragraph. The word “yet” in this context tells you that even though the previous sentence was true, there are other important factors that haven’t been discussed. In this case, these factors are the “most significant invaders” — unexpected ones like plants, pigs, and germs — that ultimately “transformed” life in the Caribbean islands. If you were taking notes on this sentence, these should also be a sub-category to “invaders,” since they are examples of specific kinds of invaders brought about by this contact. An outline of the entire paragraph could look something like this: Spanish created contacts between Europeans and Native Americans Native Americans eager to trade/form alliances also fought against those they considered invaders most significant invaders plants, pigs, and germs transformed landscape, diet, and ways of life If you are annotating in your book, you might write the first bullet point in the margin to provide a handy guide to the paragraph’s topic. Then, you can underline the subcategories in the paragraph itself. A C T IVIT Y As you read the rest of Module 1-1, create a set of notes in outline form, following the strategies laid out in steps 1 and 2. Remember, the purpose of taking notes is to make a personalized record of the important ideas and the specific evidence used to prove them. The Aztecs, the Maya, and the Incas Three significant civilizations had emerged in the Americas by the early sixteenth century: Aztec and Mayan societies, both in the equatorial region, and the Incan society along the Pacific coast in present-day Peru. Technologically advanced, with particularly sophisticated knowledge of mathematics and astronomy, all three societies capitalized on vast mineral wealth to build large urban centers, formed highly ritualized religions, and developed complex political systems. Since they carried out most of their commerce over land or along rivers and coastlines, they did not build large boats. They also lacked horses, which had disappeared from the region thousands of years earlier. Still, the Aztecs, Maya, and Incas established grand cities and civilizations. Around 1325 C.E., the Aztecs, who called themselves Mexica, built their capital, Tenochtitlán, on the site of present-day Mexico City. As seminomadic warriors who had invaded and then settled in the region, the Aztecs drew on local residents’ knowledge of irrigation and cultivation and adopted their written language. Aztec commoners, who tilled communally owned lands, were ruled over by priests and nobles. The nobles formed a warrior class and owned vast estates on which they employed both serfs and enslaved people captured from non-Aztec communities in the region. Priests promised fertility — for the land and its people — but demanded human sacrifices, including thousands of men and women from captured tribes. Aztecs Spanish term for the Mexica, an indigenous people who built an empire in present-day Mexico in the centuries before the arrival of the Spaniards. AP ® TIP Analyze the ways in which the worldviews of the Maya, Incan, and Aztec societies diverged from those of Europeans. To sustain their society, Aztecs increased agriculture by expanding and intensifying use of a technological innovation known as chinampas. Chinampas, basically artificial islands, took advantage of well-watered swampy and lake areas by constructing man-made frames into which lake mud and plants were layered to create plots of good soil. In this way, Aztecs adapted to watery environments, increasing production of maize, beans, and squash. Aztecs also extended their trade networks, offering pottery, cloth, and leather goods in exchange for textiles and obsidian to make sharp-edged tools and weapons. As will be shown by Malintzin’s story (see Module 1-3), enslaved people made up an important component of this trade. The Maya, another grand civilization, slowly settled the vast region south of Tenochtitlán and spread up into the Yucatán peninsula between roughly 900 B.C.E. and 300 C.E. They established large cities that were home to skilled artisans and developed elaborate systems for irrigation and water storage. Farmers worked the fields and labored to build huge stone temples and palaces for rulers who claimed to be descended from the gods. Learned men developed mathematical calculations, astronomical systems, hieroglyphic writing, and a calendar. Maya People who established large cities on the Yucatán peninsula with strong irrigation and agricultural techniques. The Maya civilization was strongest between 300 and 800 C.E. Yet the Maya civilization began to decline around 800 C.E. An economic crisis, likely the result of drought and worsened by heavy taxation, probably drove peasant families into the interior. Many towns and religious sites were abandoned. Despite these difficulties, some communities survived the crisis and reemerged as thriving city-states over the course of several centuries. By the early sixteenth century, they were trading with the Aztecs. The Incas developed an equally impressive civilization in the Andes Mountains along the Pacific coast. The Incan empire, like the Aztec empire, was built on the accomplishments of earlier societies. At the height of their power, in the fifteenth century, the Incas controlled some sixteen million people spread over 350,000 square miles. They constructed an expansive system of roads and garrisons to ensure the flow of food, trade goods, and soldiers from their capital at Cuzco through the surrounding mountains and valleys. Incas Andean people who built an empire in the centuries before the arrival of the Spaniards amid the fertile land of the Andes Mountains along the Pacific coast. Reaching the height of their power in the fifteenth century, the Incas controlled some sixteen million people. The key to Incan success was their cultivation of fertile mountain valleys. Cuzco, some eleven thousand feet above sea level, lay in the center of the Incan empire. Its residents cultivated potatoes and other crops on terraces watered by an elaborate irrigation system. Miners dug gold and silver from the mountains, and artisans crafted the metals into jewelry and decorative items. Thousands of laborers constructed elaborate palaces and temples. And like the Aztec priests, Incan priests sacrificed humans to the gods to stave off natural disasters and military defeat. REVIEW What similarities do you see between the Aztec, Incan, and Mayan civilizations? What differences do you note between these three peoples? AP ® THINKING HISTORICALLY Analyzing Sources Although it might be tempting to think of history as a fixed set of events set squarely in the rearview mirror of civilization, the reality of how history is made is much more complex. Just as there are many ways to tell a story, there are many ways to look at history. It may help to think of it this way: Let’s say you’re at your annual family reunion, and everyone is gathered around the dinner table, reminiscing about what happened at the reunion last year. Multiple people are talking, perhaps even interrupting each other. Some people may be talking quietly to the person sitting next to them; others might be calling out to someone across the table. There’s probably a general consensus about some aspects of last year’s event — everyone can agree, for instance, when and where it was, and who was there. But when it comes to remembering details, each family member likely has something unique to contribute, and while these stories can work together to create a unified narrative (Aunt Phyllis remembers your side of the family was late, and your brother chimes in that it was because your flight was delayed), they can also illuminate several different, often dissonant, perspectives. You draw on all of these individual voices and opinions and use them to form your own ideas about what happened, and why. Likewise, historians construct history out of rich primary source materials that have survived from the past. These sources come in a variety of formats, including texts, material artifacts, architecture, and images. Historians examine these sources, sometimes considering them individually, but usually in combination with others. Analyzing many primary sources from a particular time period, even if they conflict with each other, allows historians to draw broad conclusions about that time period, and thereby construct a historical narrative that says something useful about the past to readers in the present. Interpreting sources in this way is a historian’s most fundamental task — in other words, how we think about these sources shapes our understanding of history. Because of this, analyzing primary sources is a crucial way to uncover meaning from the past. The AP® exam will also ask you to analyze and interpret primary sources in nearly every section of the test. The multiple-choice section contains several sources, each accompanied by two to five questions. One of the four Short-Answer Questions will require you to analyze a primary source in your response. Finally, the Document-Based Question, or DBQ, is an essay prompt that asks you to examine seven primary sources and write an essay using your analysis of them to support a historical argument. One strategy for reading sources effectively on the AP® exam is to start by reading the prompts or questions before reading the primary source or sources. Knowing what questions you’ll have to answer can help you tailor your reading to the task. Next, you should look for information about the source. Historians begin to form their interpretation of a primary source based on what they are able to identify about its basic qualities. Complete information about a source is not always available, but historians work with what is known. You can do the same by asking yourself some key questions: Historical situation: What kind of source is it — a physical artifact, a piece of writing, an image, or something else? When was the source made? What events and/or circumstances shaped its creation? Intended audience: Who was this source created for, and how do you know? Purpose: Why was the source created? How do you know? Point of view: Who created the source? How do various aspects of the creator’s identity — such as their gender, social class, race, ethnicity, livelihood, or religion — affect your reading of the source? On the AP® exam, a “source” line either above or below the document will provide at least some of this information, but you may have to hunt within the source itself for other details as well as rely on your own historical knowledge. Regardless of what information is provided up front, you should still take the time to think about each of these factors. Drawing your own conclusions about historical situation, intended audience, purpose, and point of view is an excellent stepping stone to historical interpretation and analysis. Step 1 Carefully read the source This is the most vital step. This means actually reading written sources, but for visual texts, your “reading” will be a close examination of the object itself. As you read a source, identify the most telling parts of the whole. Consider the key questions about historical situation, intended audience, purpose, and point of view to determine these key parts. Who created the source and why? What kind of source is it? When was it made and what events shaped its creation? You may not be able to answer all of these questions, but even answering some of them will help you better understand the historical significance of your source. Step 2 Annotate the source If possible, mark these key parts by circling, underlining, or bracketing them. If you cannot write on your source, taking notes on a separate piece of paper is also helpful. Use the questions on historical situation, intended audience, purpose, and point of view as your guide. Annotate the parts you have marked by putting the ideas they convey into your own words and asking questions about details that confuse or interest you. How thoroughly you annotate depends on the task you are asked to complete. If you’re reading a source for a multiple-choice question, for instance, you will probably only circle a few key words and underline a few important phrases, and your own notes on the source may be short phrases or even a single word. If you are reading a source in order to respond to a prompt, your annotation may be more thorough. Let’s take a look at how you might read and annotate a primary source that is a historical artifact. This means your “reading” of this source must be a close look at its details. Begin by reading the source line for the image. Here, it tells you that the maker of the artifact is unknown, that the objects in the images form a gold necklace of small, interlocking frogs, which have been arranged to show you how it might have been worn, that it was produced under the Aztec empire, and that it was created during the fifteenth or sixteenth century (the 1400s or 1500s).  S ource: Anony mous M ixtec artisan, Necklace with Gold Frog Ornaments, Aztec emp ire, 15th–16th century About the source: M ixtec and Aztec p eop les associated frogs with rain and fertility. This source also includes an additional “About the source” line. These are sometimes included to provide you with additional information to help you interpret the source. In this case, the “About the source” line tells you that the religious beliefs held by Mixtec and Aztec peoples placed special significance in frogs. Now consider the object itself. You can see that details of the golden frogs are uniform and relatively well-detailed. This tells you that the maker of this necklace not only had access to precious materials (gold), but was highly skilled in metallurgy, a specialized craft that likely took years to learn. From this information, you can also make the educated guess, or inference, that the maker of this necklace had adequate time to make a detailed and valuable object. Each module of this book includes sources that provide opportunities for you to practice historical analysis. These sources serve as paths for you to gain meaning from the past, and working with them is an essential part of the process of building your skills. A C T IVIT Y Throughout this book, you will encounter AP® Analyzing Sources boxes that will ask you to carefully examine and answer questions designed to foster critical thinking about a variety of historical sources. The following three questions ask about the frog necklace we introduced in step 2. For each question, we have provided a partial sample response. Add at least one additional response of your own to each of these questions. 1. Identify a feature of the Aztec economy, technology, culture, environment, or society revealed by this artifact. Technology: The image of the frog ornaments from an Aztec necklace shows that Aztec society was an advanced civilization supporting craft specialization of artists because the detail and quality work in gold is more than what amateurs or non- specialists in less developed economies produced. Environment: The large amount of gold used in making the Aztec frog ornaments for a single necklace suggests that the Aztec empire was rich and controlled, or had access to, large amounts of precious metals, including gold. Your turn! 2. Identify an Aztec priority revealed by this artifact. The Aztecs depended upon producing a surplus of food through agriculture so they prioritized fertility. Since frogs likely symbolized fertility and gold was valuable to the Aztecs, craftsmen likely made this object to be worn by leaders to express their elite position in the social hierarchy. Your turn! 3. Describe an Aztec adaptation to the environment reflected in this artifact. Aztecs adapted to a swampy environment surrounding their capital by creating innovative floating gardens called chinampas. Chinampas allowed the Aztecs to undertake large-scale agriculture to feed their population. Your turn! Native Cultures to the North To the north of these grand civilizations, smaller societies also thrived. In present-day Arizona and New Mexico, the Hohokam established communities around 500 C.E. and developed extensive irrigation systems. In present-day Utah and Colorado, ancient Pueblo villages supported settled populations by farming maize, which had spread to the region after domestication in Central America, as well as beans and squash. As time went on, the Pueblo people gathered themselves into small urban centers built from adobe bricks made from clay and water and used advanced irrigation techniques to survive the arid climate of the Southwest. By around 750 C.E., they were building adobe and masonry homes cut into cliffs. Although they eventually migrated south and constructed large buildings that included administrative offices, religious centers, and craft shops, the Pueblo peoples returned to their cliff dwellings in the 1100s for protection from invaders. There, persistent drought eventually caused them to disperse into smaller settled groups. Pueblo American Indian peoples who lived in present-day New Mexico and Arizona and built permanent multi- story adobe dwellings. AP ® ANALYZING SOURCES  S ource: Pueblo “Cliff Palace” at Mesa Verde, Colorado About the source: This Pueblo “cliff p alace” was built around 1200 C.E. and inhabited for around 100 y ears. Residents grew corn, beans, and squash, traded goods, and comp eted with neighboring towns. Questions for Analy sis 1. Identify a Pueblo adaptation to the environment apparent in this image. 2. Describe the interactions of the Pueblo who lived in this structure with other nearby peoples, based on the evidence in this photograph. 3. Explain what this image reveals about the Pueblo people. Consider things like the economy, technology, environment, politics, and society in your response. Farther north, on plains that stretched from present-day Colorado into Canada, hunting societies developed around the herds of bison that roamed there. A weighted spear-throwing device, called an atlatl, allowed hunters to capture smaller game, while nets, hooks, and snares allowed them to catch birds, fish, and small animals. Societies in the Great Plains as well as the Great Basin (between the Rockies and the Sierra Nevada) generally remained small and widely scattered. Given the arid conditions in these regions, communities needed a large expanse of territory to ensure their survival as they followed migrating animals or seasonal plant sources. Here the adoption of the bow and arrow, in about 500 C.E., proved the most significant technological development. Other American Indian societies, like the Mandan, settled along rivers in the heart of the continent (present-day North and South Dakota). The rich soil along the banks fostered farming, while forests and plains attracted diverse animals for hunting. Around 1250 C.E., however, an extended drought forced these settlements to contract, and competition for resources increased among Mandan villages and with other groups in the region. Hunting-gathering societies also emerged along the Pacific coast, where the abundance of fish, small game, and plant life provided the resources to develop permanent settlements. Although the Chumash Indians remained hunters and foragers, they settled in permanent villages near present-day Santa Barbara, California, where they harvested resources from the land and the ocean. Women gathered acorns and pine nuts, while men fished, using enormous ocean-going canoes called tomol, and hunted. The Chumash, whose villages sometimes supported up to a thousand inhabitants without farming, participated in regional exchange networks up and down the coast. AP ® TIP Consider the ways in which — and reasons why—American Indian societies in resource-rich areas of North America differed from areas with more limited natural resources. The American Indians of the Pacific Northwest were composed of diverse peoples of different languages and cultures who lived in resource-rich regions near the Pacific Ocean. Ocean resources supported these hunters and gatherers as they gave up nomadic life and settled down into a village life. They depended upon the sea and rivers for rich salmon harvests, and elk from the forests. They worshipped maritime and woodland deities, who were portrayed in detailed totem poles carved from the cedars of the dense forests of the region. American Indians in the Pacific Northwest also built ocean- going canoes from cedar and often hauled in thousands of pounds of fish in a single harvest. The Chinook peoples in the Pacific Northwest used the cedars to build extensive plank houses, some hundreds of feet long, in which lived extended kinship groups with up to seventy family members under a single roof. AP ® TIP Make a list of the characteristics that led to the development of mixed agriculture and hunting societies in Eastern North America. The Ute peoples foraged and hunted nomadically in the Great Basin region, which stretched over an enormous desert in what is now southwestern Colorado and southeastern Utah. They held few possessions, and lived in small egalitarian kinship bands. The bands survived in the desolate desert by hunting and gathering. In the most barren areas, they survived on fish found in the few rivers in the area, small animals, and plant foods including seeds from grasses and piñon nuts. Ute family bands traded with each other, as well as with other regional tribes, including Pueblo peoples, over an extensive network throughout the American Southwest. In the northeast regions of North America, the Iroquois people lived in villages of up to several hundred inhabitants and cultivated maize as well as vegetables like squash and beans. Since the Iroquois lived in semi-sedentary villages, they built large long houses out of the rich forests of the Northeast, often living communally in extended groups that spanned multiple generations and families. Women exercised considerable power within village life, since they passed descent and inheritance through the maternal lines in a matrilineal kinship system, and women selected male village leaders. The Iroquois also depended upon deer hunting and fishing, which proved abundant throughout the region. Iroquois culture revolved around a warrior ethos that valued individual honor in battle, where ritual humiliation of an opponent was often more important than killing an opponent. MAP 1.2 American Indian Peoples, c. 500–1500 C.E. Some American Indians, like the Mississippians, developed extensive trade networks over land or along rivers and coastlines. Others, such as the Aztec, developed extensive agricultural economies based on Mayan precedents and practiced trade. Other groups, like the Pueblo, battled over scarce resources. How did geographic location shape these differences? Description The places marked on the graph are as follows: Anasazi (Pueblo) occupy the significant part of New Mexico; Aztec in South Mexico, Tenochtitlan; Hohokam along the states of Arizona and Mexico; Hopewell in middle eastern and northern parts of the United States. Serpent mound and Cahokia are marked along this settlement. Iroquoian is along the north shore of Lake Ontario; Mandan along the Missouri River, North Dakota; Mayan in South Mexico; Mississippian along North Mexico and west of the United States; Mogollon in the northwest of Mexico. Even larger societies with more elaborate social, religious, and political systems developed near the Mississippi River. A group that came to be called the Hopewell people established a thriving culture in the early centuries C.E. The river and its surrounding lands provided fertile fields and easy access to distant communities. Centered in present-day southern Ohio and western Illinois, the Hopewell constructed towns of four to six thousand people. Artifacts from their burial sites reflect extensive trading networks that stretched from the Missouri River to Lake Superior, and from the Rocky Mountains to the Appalachian region and Florida. Beginning around 500 C.E., the Hopewell culture gave birth to larger and more complex societies that flourished in the Mississippi River valley and to the south and east. As bows and arrows spread into the region, people hunted more game in the thick forests. But Mississippian groups also learned to cultivate corn. The development of corn as a staple crop allowed the population to expand dramatically, and more complex political and religious systems developed in which elite rulers gained greater control over the labor of farmers and hunters. Mississippian peoples created massive earthworks sculpted in the shape of serpents, birds, and other creatures. Some earthen sculptures stood higher than 70 feet and stretched longer than 1,300 feet. Mississippians also constructed huge temple mounds that could cover nearly 16 acres. Serpent Mound Memorial Mississippians constructed this mound, located in Locust Grove, Ohio, between 950 and 1200 C.E. Worshippers of the sun, the Mississippians aligned the head of the serpent with the sunset of the summer solstice (June 20 or 21). Artifacts found at this site indicate the Mississippians extended Hopewell trade networks. Based on this information, what can you conclude about the Mississippian economy during this period? AP ® TIP Create a list of characteristics that illustrates the development of increasingly complex societies in North America before 1500 C.E. By about 1100 C.E., the Cahokia people established the largest Mississippian settlement, which may have housed ten to thirty thousand inhabitants (Map 1.2). Powerful chieftains extended their trade networks from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, conquered smaller villages, and created a centralized government. But in the 1200s, environmental factors affected the Cahokian people, too. Deforestation, drought, and perhaps disease as well as overhunting diminished their strength, and many settlements dispersed. After 1400, increased warfare and political turmoil joined with environmental changes to cause Mississippian culture as a whole to decline. REVIEW How did the societies of North America differ from those of the equatorial region and the Andes Mountain region? AP ® THINKING HISTORICALLY Applying Comparison Now that you have read this module, it’s time to reflect on what you learned about diverse American Indian societies prior to the sixteenth century and consider how to approach thinking comparatively about their histories. In this example, we’ll discuss how to apply the historical reasoning skill of comparison to the Pueblo and the Iroquois. Step 1 M ake a list identify ing characteristics of each group As you think, it may help to ask yourself what you know about each group’s politics economy  society interactions with the environment A graphic organizer containing two lists that highlight the main attributes of the Pueblo and Iroquois societies might look like this: Pueblo Iroquois Politics Experienced conflicts Women exercised with invaders. considerable power, maternal lines of inheritance. Women selected leaders. Warrior ethos. Economy Farmed beans and Depended upon squash, using hunting/fishing as well as irrigation. agriculture. Society Built homes in cliffs, Lived in villages, semi- settled. sedentary. Interactions Dry environment. Lived in forests, built long with the Built homes in cliffs houses from wood. Environment or adobe. Irrigation Acquired food from game necessary to practice as well as small-scale agriculture. agriculture. Step 2 Comp are y our two lists Compare your two lists by looking for ways the two groups share similarity, as well as by keeping an eye out for where they differ. The following example shows how you might organize the similarities and differences between the Pueblo and the Iroquois: Similarities Differences Both the Pueblo The Pueblo used clay bricks or cliff dwellings and Iroquois built for housing. The Iroquois used wood to build  houses from their long houses. environment. Both the Pueblo The Pueblo used irrigation to farm in their arid and Iroquois environment. The Iroquois, living in a more practiced temperate zone, did not need extensive agriculture. irrigation systems. Both the Pueblo Pueblo towns were sedentary, whereas the and the Iroquois Iroquois were semi-sedentary, and moved their lived in towns. villages as access to game and fertile land necessitated. A C T IVIT Y Follow steps 1 and 2 to explore similarities and differences between the Pueblo and Iroquois peoples’ political systems, economies, societies, and interactions with the environment. You can use the information from the examples we walked through in steps 1 and 2 to generate ideas and organize your thoughts, and you can bring in other observations you had while reading this module. AP ® WRITING HISTORICALLY Breaking Down Short-Answer Question Prompts All of the writing you do on the AP® exam, and most of the writing you do in this course, will be in response to different types of writing prompts. These prompts give you a basic guide for what to include in your answer by telling you to write about specific topics, time periods, places, and groups of people. In other words, you’re always going to be writing about some combination of who, what, when, and where. On the AP® U.S. History exam, you will be asked to choose to answer three out of four total Short-Answer Question (or SAQ) prompts. These questions are much more open-ended and multilayered than those in the multiple-choice section of the exam. The tasks that Short-Answer Questions ask you to complete are actually more like mini essay questions. While this means that you need to answer these questions in complete sentences, your response should be one short paragraph rather than a multi-paragraph essay. Another unique aspect of Short-Answer Questions is that they have three parts, each of which is given its own letter label. Each part sets a limit on your response by asking you to complete one distinct task. The following Short-Answer Question asks you to reflect on what you have learned in Module 1-1: Answer (a), (b), and (c). Confine your response to the period before 1600. a. Briefly describe ONE specific historical similarity in adaptation to the environment made by two American Indian groups. b. Briefly describe ONE specific historical difference in adaptation to the environment made by two American Indian groups. c. Briefly describe ONE specific historical difference in the economies of two American Indian groups. After quickly reading this question, you’re probably wondering where to begin. It asks you to do a lot of things in a short paragraph — and, since the AP® exam is timed, you’re likely working with a short timeframe, too. Let’s walk through one pre-writing strategy for breaking down a Short- Answer Question: annotating the prompt. This process is an excellent way to figure out what your response needs to include — and exclude. In order to succeed on the exam, not only do you have to understand what a prompt is asking you to do, you also have to know what falls outside of the task at hand. Reading the question closely and annotating it to distill each of the tasks you must complete will help you avoid writing something off topic. Responses that fail to adequately address all parts of the question will not earn full credit. Step 1 Read the instructions First, consider the part of the question that comes before the three parts of the prompt: Answer (a), (b), and (c). Confine your response to the period before 1600. These instructions place limits that apply to all parts of the prompt. In this case, the question is telling you that everything you write will have to discuss the period before 1600. So, you should note “before 1600” as the time. You may also find it helpful to write “before 1600” before or after each part of the prompt so that it’s fresh in your memory. Step 2 Read and annotate each p art of the question Next, read part (a) carefully and label the limits of the topic, task, and place. The topic is how American Indian groups adapted to the environment. The task is to identify exactly one specific historical similarity. The place is America. Continue to annotate for topic, task, and place for parts (b) and (c). A complete annotation of the question will look something like this: Description Answer (a), (b), and (c). Confine your response to the period before 1600. a. Briefly describe ONE specific historical similarity in adaptation to the environment made by two American Indian groups. before 1600 b. Briefly describe ONE specific historical difference in adaptation to the environment made by two American Indian groups. before 1600 c. Briefly describe ONE specific historical difference in the economies of two American Indian groups. before 1600 What do all of these annotations tell you about the answer you need to write? Your response to part (a) will describe both two American Indian groups and an adaptation to the environment they share before 1600. For part (b), you will also describe two American Indian groups — which do not have to be the same two groups you named in part (a) — and name a difference in their adaptation to the environment before 1600. Likewise, part (c) calls for you to select two American Indian groups and describe differences in their economies prior to 1600. Step 3 Resp ond to the p romp t and sup p ort y our answer with at least two historical facts You may be wondering what it means to “describe” the historical similarities and differences specified by this Short-Answer Question. While each part of this prompt does call for you to state historical facts, a “describe” task signals that you need to include details to illustrate those facts. Think of it this way: When you simply state what something is — a chair, a desk, a book — you’re not painting a picture of what it looks like. But when you describe something — a black leather office chair with wheels, an old metal desk that’s been painted white, an AP® U.S. history textbook with a quilt on the cover — you’re pointing out several characteristics and prominent features. Thus, a prompt that asks you to describe something is asking for a plural response, which means you need to provide at least two facts in your answer. An effective response to the Short-Answer Question we annotated in step 2 may look something like this: Both the Pueblo and the Iroquois lived in environments that allowed for agriculture, so both grew their own crops to help feed their people. However, the Pueblo lived in an arid environment, so they used irrigation systems, whereas the Iroquois lived in a temperate zone with fertile soil and regular rainfall, and therefore grew crops without extensive use of irrigation systems. Also, since the Iroquois lived in a temperate environment, they practiced hunting to supplement their food supply, relying on game such as deer and fish. This answer does everything parts (a), (b), and (c) ask for — it offers one similarity between how two American Indian groups (the Pueblo and Iroquois) adapted to their environment: use of agriculture. (“Both the Pueblo and the Iroquois lived in environments that allowed for agriculture, so both grew their own crops to help feed their people.”) one difference between how two American Indian groups (the Pueblo and Iroquois) adapted to their environment: The Pueblo used irrigation systems, while the Iroquois depended on the natural environment. (“However, the Pueblo lived in an arid environment, so they used irrigation systems, whereas the Iroquois lived in a temperate zone with fertile soil and regular rainfall, and therefore grew crops without extensive use of irrigation systems.”) one difference between the Pueblo and Iroquois economies that contains two examples illustrating that difference: The Iroquois supplemented their diet by practicing hunting as well as agriculture. (“Also, since the Iroquois lived in a temperate environment, they practiced hunting to supplement their food supply, relying on game such as deer and fish.”) A C T IVIT Y Now you try it. Read and break down the three parts of the following Short-Answer Question by annotating for time, place, task, and topic. Then, write a one-paragraph response that fully addresses the prompt. Answer (a), (b), and (c). Confine your response to the period before 1600. a. Briefly describe ONE specific historical similarity in the economies of two American Indian groups. b. Briefly describe ANOTHER specific historical similarity in the economies of two American Indian groups. c. Briefly describe ONE specific historical difference in the societies of two American Indian groups. Module 1-2 Portugal and Spain Expand Their Reach LEARNING TARGETS By the end of this module, you should be able to: Explain how European economic and military competition led to exploration and colonization of the New World. Explain how maritime technology contributed to European exploration and colonization. Explain how new transoceanic methods to conduct trade shaped European exploration and colonization. THEMATIC FOCUS America in the World Relying on technological innovations and driven by a desire for trade and economic competition, European countries began to fund voyages of exploration and conquest. Portugal secured trading posts in Africa as well as profitable ocean trade routes to the Middle East and Asia. Spain financed Christopher Columbus’s voyages to the Americas, opening the door to a New World for Europeans. Interactions between Columbus and American Indian societies in the Caribbean established patterns for future relations. HISTORICAL REASONING FOCUS Causation One reason people frequently look to the past is to understand the consequences of their decisions. This is because historical events have causes, and knowing what causes something often allows you to understand it better. For instance, staying up late to binge-watch your favorite TV show on a Sunday night will cause you to lose out on necessary sleep, and you will know why you’re tired when your alarm for school goes off on Monday morning. When historians seek to uncover why an event occurred, they use the historical pattern of thought called causation to establish why that development happened. Causation is more complicated, however, than one event leading into the next. For instance, the brief introduction that opens this module describes European exploration as the result of three causes: the value of Asian goods, blocked overland trade routes, and desires of monarchs to amass wealth. Important historical events result from — and are caused by — more than one factor. The three causes we describe at the beginning of this module are only a small slice of the story about what ushered in an era of European exploration. TASK As you read the rest of this module, take special note of the many additional causes that combined to lead Columbus and the Spanish to begin European colonization of the Americas. Rising birthrates and productivity in early fifteenth-century Europe, aided by an improved climate and new approaches to farming that increased Europe’s food supply overall, fueled a resurgence of trade with other parts of the world. The profits from agriculture and commerce allowed the wealthy and powerful to begin investing in the arts and luxury goods. Indeed, a cultural Renaissance (from the French word for “rebirth”) flourished, first in the Italian city-states, and then spread throughout much of the rest of Europe. This cultural rebirth went hand in hand with political unification as more powerful rulers extended their control over smaller city-states and principalities, forming nation-states led by monarchs. All of these factors combined to stabilize a continent that, only a few generations earlier, had been devastated by the plague. As trade thrived and European elites prospered, the wealthy developed tastes for fine Asian manufactured goods, as well as spices from India and China. Renaissance The cultural and intellectual flowering that began in fifteenth-century Italy and then spread north throughout the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. During this time, European rulers pushed for greater political unification of their states. During this time, Portuguese and Spanish monarchs initiated efforts to explore the world, hoping to find new ways to gain access to valuable Asian goods. Powerful Italian city-states and merchants controlled the most important routes through the Mediterranean, while Muslims controlled more minor pathways, as well as the overland routes further east to India and China. Effectively blocked from access to existing eastward routes, and craving opportunity for greater wealth by conducting trade themselves, Portugal (and later, Spain) sought trade routes to Asia that could bypass those controlled by their Italian and Muslim rivals. These efforts were aided by explorers, missionaries, and merchants who traveled to Morocco, Turkey, India, and other distant lands. They brought back trade goods and knowledge of astronomy, shipbuilding, mapmaking, and navigation that allowed the Portuguese and Spanish to venture farther south along the Atlantic coast of Africa, and, eventually, west into the uncharted Atlantic Ocean. missionaries People who travel to foreign lands with the goal of converting those they meet and interact with to a new religion. REVIEW What historical factors during the fifteenth century caused Europeans to establish trade with other continents? Portugal and Spain Pursue Long- Distance Trade Cut off from the Mediterranean by Italian city-states and Muslim rulers in North Africa, the Kingdom of Portugal looked toward the Atlantic. Although a tiny nation, Portugal benefited from the leadership of its young prince, Henry, who launched explorations of the African coast in the 1420s, hoping to find a passage to India via the Atlantic Ocean. Prince Henry — known as Henry the Navigator — gathered information from astronomers, geographers, mapmakers, and craftsmen in the Arab world and recruited Italian cartographers and navigators along with Portuguese scholars, sailors, and captains. He then launched efforts aimed at exploration, observation, shipbuilding, and long-distance trade that revolutionized Europe and shaped developments in Africa and the Americas. Under Henry, the Portuguese developed ships known as caravels — vessels with narrow hulls and triangular sails that were especially effective for navigating the coast of West Africa. Innovative Portuguese mariners encouraged by Prince Henry created state-of-the-art maritime charts, maps, and astronomical tables. They improved navigational instruments including the mariner’s astrolabe and advanced ship designs, which featured the triangular lateen sail, originally an Arab invention, and a stern-post rudder, both of which improved maneuverability. The Portuguese mastered the complex wind and sea currents along the African coast. Soon Portugal was trading in gold, ivory, and enslaved people from West Africa. caravel A small and swift sailing ship invented by the Portuguese during the fifteenth century. astrolabe A tool invented by Greek astronomers and sailors for navigation or astrological problems. MAP 1.3 Fifteenth-Century Trade Routes in Africa and the Mediterranean While overland trade routes had long connected West Africa with the Mediterranean, by the 1430s, the Portuguese had opened a new trade route down the west coast of Africa, and, eventually, around the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of the continent, which allowed the Portuguese access to the Indian Ocean.  What economic, political, and geographic factors made it possible for Portugal to open a new trade route along the west coast of Africa? Description This map shows the trade routes (both overland and sea trade routes), connecting the Sahara to the Mediterranean in the 15th century. A sea trade route starts from Lisbon in Spain and goes to the islands of Madeira, then to the Canary Islands and Cape Verde Island, around West Africa— the part of the continent that bulges into the Atlantic, before ending at the Bight of Benin. Another sea trade route from India goes northward through the Red Sea in Eastern Africa to the Mediterranean Sea and then northward to Venice, Italy. The overland trade route from Asia known as the Silk Road pushes westward, south of the Caspian Sea to Antioch, with an offshoot overland trade route continuing to Istanbul, south of the Black Sea, and then to the Mediterranean Sea south of Venice. Various overland trade routes crisscross the Sahara Desert, northeastward to Alexandria and south to Timbuktu and Djenne. Many of these start, end, or cross at two major watersheds, the Volta and the Niger, dominating West Africa as well as the Nile River in central and eastern Africa. The map also shows, from west to east, the Grain Coast, the Ivory Coast, the Gold Coast, and the Slave Cost that span the African coast south of the start of Niger River to just west of the Niger delta. In 1482 Portugal built Elmina Castle, a trading post and fort on the African Gold Coast, in present-day Ghana. Further expeditions were launched from the castle; five years later, a fleet led by Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, on the southernmost tip of Africa. This feat demonstrated the possibility of sailing directly from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean. Vasco da Gama followed this route to India in 1497, returning to Portugal in 1499, his ships laden with valuable cinnamon and pepper. By the early sixteenth century, Portuguese traders started participating in Indian Ocean trade bringing Asian goods to Europe. They established fortified trading posts at key locations on the Indian Ocean and extended their expeditions to Indonesia, China, and Japan. Within a decade, the Portuguese had become the European leaders in international trade. Meanwhile its neighbor, a newly independent Spain, was also eager to explore the wider world. A vibrant and religiously tolerant culture had existed in Muslim Spain from the eighth to the tenth century, but that was followed by a long period of persecution of Christians. When Christians began reconquering Spain after 1200, Muslims and Jews alike became targets. Then in 1469, the marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon sealed the unification of Christian Spain. By 1492 their combined forces expelled the last Muslim conquerors from the Iberian peninsula. Promoting Catholicism to create a more unified national identity, Isabella and Ferdinand launched an Inquisition against supposed heretics and executed or expelled some 200,000 Jews as well. After the reconquest and the Inquisition, Catholic Spain used its wealth and military power to expand its reach by forging its own trade networks with North Africa, India, and other Asian lands. The legacy of the reconquest of the Spanish Peninsula and the Inquisition added an intense desire to spread Catholicism to Spain’s motivations for exploration. Inquisition A religious judicial institution designed to find and eliminate beliefs that did not align with official Catholic practices. The Spanish Inquisition was first established in 1478. AP ® TIP Be sure you can explain how religious motivations contributed to the exploration and settlement of the Americas. With expanding populations and greater agricultural productivity, Portugal and Spain developed more efficient systems of taxation, built larger military forces, and adapted gunpowder to new kinds of weapons. The surge in population provided the men to labor on merchant vessels, staff forts, and protect trade routes. More people began to settle in cities, which grew into important commercial centers. REVIEW In what ways were the motivations for Spanish and Portuguese overseas exploration similar? In what ways did these motivations differ? Europeans Cross the Atlantic The first Europeans to see lands in the western Atlantic were Norsemen. In the late tenth century, Scandinavian seafarers led by Erik the Red reached Greenland. Sailing still farther west, Erik’s son, Leif Erikson, led a party that discovered an area in North America that they called Vinland, near the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The Norse established a small settlement there around 1000 C.E., and people from Greenland continued to visit Vinland for centuries. By 1450, however, the Greenland settlements had disappeared. Nearly a half century after Norse settlers abandoned Greenland, a Genoese navigator named Christopher Columbus visited the Spanish court of Ferdinand and Isabella and proposed an exploration of the Indies. Portuguese explorers used this name for the region that included present-day South Asia and Southeast Asia and surrounding islands. Because Italian city-states controlled the Mediterranean and Portugal dominated the routes around Africa, Spain sought a third path to the rich Eastern trade. Columbus claimed he could find it by sailing west across the Atlantic to Japan, China, or present-day India. Columbus’s 1492 proposal was timely. Having just expelled the last Muslims and Jews from Granada and imposed Catholic practices on a now-unified nation, the Spanish monarchs sought to expand their empire. After winning Queen Isabella’s support, the Genoese captain headed off in three small ships with ninety men. They stopped briefly at the Canary Islands and then headed due west on September 6, 1492. In making his calculations, Columbus made a number of errors that led him to believe that it was possible to sail from Spain to Asia in about a month. The miscalculations nearly led to mutiny, but disaster was averted when a lookout finally spotted a small island on October 12. Columbus named the island San Salvador and made contact with local residents, whom he named Indians in the belief that he had found the East Indies islands near Japan or China. Columbus was impressed with their warm welcome and considered the gold jewelry they wore as a sign of great riches in the region. AP ® TIP Make sure you can explain how contact between Europe, Africa, and the Americas shaped social, cultural, and political changes in Europe. Although native inhabitants and Columbus’s men did not speak a common language, the American inhabitants aided the Spanish in exploring the area, likely in hopes of encouraging trade. The crew then sailed on to an island they named Hispaniola. Leaving a small number of men behind, Columbus sailed back to Spain with samples of gold jewelry, captured and enslaved American Indians, and tales of more wonders to come. MAP 1.4 Spanish Incursions into American Empires Columbus first landed on the island he called San Salvador, and later sailed to an island he named Hispaniola. On a second voyage, he explored the coast of Central America and Cuba. Later “conquistadors” conquered farther inland, eventually overturning the Aztec and Incan empires. Based on your knowledge of Columbus, what might explain his routes in these two voyages? In what ways did Cortés and Pizarro build upon Columbus’s first routes? Description The map shows the Mexico/Central America peninsula stretching to South America, with Cuba, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico. The Aztec Empire was in the northern part of the peninsula, the Mayan Empire covered the central region of the peninsula, and the Inca Empire was along the western coast of South America. Mining areas are shown for gold and silver. Silver appears in Mexico; gold appears in Hispaniola, northern South America (3 places) and the southern part of the Central American peninsula. Columbus's voyages for 1498 to 1500 and 1502 to 1504 are shown, as well as voyages for Cortes's conquest (1519 to 1521, invasion of the Aztec Empire) and Pizarro's conquest (1524-1535, invasion of the Inca Empire). All originated or ended at Santo Domingo in Hispaniola. Columbus and his crew were welcomed as heroes when they returned to Spain in March of 1493. The success of these voyages encouraged adventurous Spaniards to travel throughout the Caribbean, South America, and regions immediately to the north in search of trade routes to Asia, gold, silver, or other riches in the Americas. It also inspired the first expeditions by the Portuguese in South America, and later the French and English in North America. AP ® TIP Compare the effects of competition between European nations on the development of their respective colonies in the Americas. Sponsored by the Catholic Spanish monarchy, Columbus’s discovery of islands seemingly unclaimed by any known or recognized power led the pope to confer Spanish sovereignty over all lands already claimed or to be claimed approximately 500 miles west of the Cape Verde Islands, off the coast of west Africa. A protest by Catholic Portugal led to a treaty finalized in 1506 that moved the line 270 leagues farther west, granting Portugal control of territory that became Brazil and Spain control of the rest of what became known as South America. Thus, in the eyes of the Spanish and Portuguese monarchies and the Roman Catholic pope, Iberians ruled the Americas. Although it became clear within a decade that Columbus had not in fact discovered a route to the Indies, it took much longer for Europeans to understand the revolutionary nature of the process he had unleashed: a global system of exchange that came to be known as the Columbian Exchange (see Module 1-3). REVIEW How did religious, economic, and political factors shape Portuguese and Spanish claims on the land in Central and South America? AP ® WRITING HISTORICALLY Responding to a Short-Answer Question Using ACE When you try to convince someone that your opinion on an issue is important, you typically use evidence to persuade them. For instance, let’s say your school district is considering starting the school day an hour earlier, and you are not in favor of this change. Saying that you don’t want to start school earlier because you like to sleep in wouldn’t be persuasive, but presenting statistics that link a later start time to improved academic performance is much more convincing. Historians also use evidence to support their claims. However, not all evidence is equally strong, and no evidence can stand alone without commentary connecting it to a claim. The following steps discuss one way to make sure you provide effective support for your own interpretations of history. For Short-Answer Questions in particular, ACE is a powerful mnemonic device for remembering all of the components of an effective answer. This three-part writing technique is also a great way to structure a short historical argument in a timed environment. So, what does ACE stand for? Answer Cite Explain Let’s take a look at how you can use ACE to respond to a Short-Answer Question: Answer parts (a), (b), and (c).  a. Briefly explain how ONE economic factor led to European exploration in the fifteenth century. b. Briefly explain how ONE specific technology that aided European exploration in the fifteenth century. c. Briefly explain how ANOTHER specific technology aided European exploration in the fifteenth century. In the following steps, we will walk through how to use ACE to respond to part (a). Step 1 State an answer to the p romp t that makes a historically defensible claim You begin a historical argument by stating an answer to the prompt — the A in ACE. This is not as simple as it sounds. It’s important to make sure that your answer isn’t merely restating the prompt — it needs to make a claim in response to the prompt. In other words, you need to take a position that you are prepared to defend with evidence. The following answer is weak: In the fifteenth century there were many economic factors that led to European exploration. Notice how this answer just restates the question. The claim it makes (that “there were many economic factors that led to European exploration”) cannot be supported with evidence, because no specific factors have been named. A good answer offers new information in its claim, thus bringing focus to your historical argument. For example: Starting in the fifteenth century, Europeans developed new trade routes. This sentence provides a specific claim: that Europeans’ development of “new trade routes” was an economic factor that led to exploration. Step 2 Cite evidence to sup p ort y our claim This brings us to C, for cite. After presenting your idea in the form of a claim, you need to cite — that is, back up — your claim with evidence that proves it. Your historical examples can be people, acts of government, ideologies, movements of the past, and more. Be sure to use historical terms, phrases, and labels to clearly communicate the connection between your historical argument and the evidence you’re providing. The more specific this aspect of your evidence is, the better — this is a place to name drop and add detail. Take a look at the following two examples, both of which cite evidence to prove the claim we came up with in step 1: Starting in the fifteenth century, Europeans developed new trade routes [answer]. The Portuguese led the way in exploration under Henry the Navigator [cite]. The citation of evidence in this sentence is weak — in fact, it’s simply a claim. There is no proof here that the Portuguese did, in fact “[lead] the way in exploration.” Instead, consider this stronger example of citing evidence: Starting in the fifteenth century, Europeans developed new trade routes [answer]. Europeans developed these trade routes to acquire scarce and highly profitable luxury goods from Asia, such as spices [cite]. This stronger response cites specific information to back up the claim that “Europeans developed new trade routes.” Notice how this citation builds upon the answer by connecting “new trade routes” to “profitable luxury goods … such as spices.” Step 3 Exp lain how y our evidence p roves y our claim The last step in ACE is vital: You need to explain how the evidence you cited proves your answer is a valid one. If your answer and citation of evidence are telling your reader what your historical argument is, then the explanation of your evidence addresses the question of, “So what?” No historical argument is complete unless you have told your reader — whether a teacher, a classmate, or an AP® exam grader — exactly how your evidence supports your claim. Let’s take a look at two example explanations that build on the answer and citation in steps 1 and 2: Starting in the fifteenth century, Europeans developed new trade routes [answer]. Europeans developed these trade routes to acquire scarce and highly profitable luxury goods from Asia, such as spices [cite]. The Portuguese king, Henry the Navigator, wanted these spices [explain]. Although at first glance it might seem like the writer has provided an explanation for how the cited evidence supports the claim that “Europeans developed new trade routes,” this example is ultimately not very strong. It’s unclear why obtaining “scarce and highly profitable luxury goods” appealed to Henry the Navigator. The following response to part (a) is stronger: Starting in the fifteenth century, Europeans developed new trade routes [answer]. Europeans developed these trade routes to acquire scarce and highly profitable luxury goods from Asia, such as spices [cite]. European monarchs, including Henry the Navigator, hoped to sell these luxury goods in Europe to generate wealth for their kingdoms [explain]. Notice how this response answers the question by noting an economic factor (new trade routes), citing a specific example of what Europeans sought on these new trade routes (luxury goods such as spices), and explaining why the example of luxury goods supports the answer (they generated wealth for European kingdoms). Now that we’ve walked through how to answer part (a), let’s put it all together. Carefully read the example of how a response to prompt (b) follows ACE: Henry the Navigator encouraged innovations in seafaring [answer]. The caravel, a new kind of vessel, was an important example of these innovations [cite]. The caravel was a small and maneuverable ship that was capable of traveling long distances [explain]. A C T IVIT Y 1. Respond to part (c): c. Briefly explain how ANOTHER specific technology aided European exploration in the fifteenth century. You may wish to use the astrolabe as an example of a specific technology. 2. Use ACE to respond to the following Short-Answer Question. Answer parts (a), (b), and (c). a. Briefly explain ONE specific historical development that led to European exploration in the fifteenth century. b. Briefly explain ANOTHER specific historical development that led to European exploration in the fifteenth century. c. Briefly explain ONE result of European exploration in the fifteenth century. Module 1-3 The Columbian Exchange LEARNING TARGETS By the end of this module, you should be able to: Explain how patterns of trade, including technology, foodstuffs, and livestock, changed and developed during the Columbian Exchange, and the ways Europeans and American Indians negotiated this change. Explain how cultural interaction, cooperation, competition, and conflict between European empires, between American Indian nations, and between Europeans and American Indians influenced political, economic, and social developments in North America. Explain how differing American Indian and European labor systems developed in North America and explain their effects on the lives of the people of North America, Europe, and Africa. THEMATIC FOCUS Geography and the Environment The Columbian Exchange — of crops, animals, diseases, and more — shaped the development of both American Indian and European societies. Crops transplanted from the Americas led to the growth of Europe’s population, and the mineral wealth from the New World contributed to the transition from feudalism to capitalism in Europe. Yet for indigenous peoples in the Americas, the primary effect of the Columbian Exchange was the introduction of European diseases, which decimated the native population. The creation of an “Atlantic World” linking Europe, the Americas, and Africa in an economic system that relied on the forced labor of American Indians and Africans also sped up as Britain, France, and the Netherlands began to colonize. HISTORICAL REASONING FOCUS Causation Historians use the historical pattern of thought called causation in explaining the relationship between an event and its effects. Put simply, this way of looking at history seeks to illustrate how one event leads to the next. It might be helpful to think of an effect as the outcome of a cause. There are two major ways to use causation to consider the interplay of causes and effects. As you remember, when historians look to understand why a development occurred, they sometimes examine a cause, or multiple causes, that culminate in an effect. At other times, historians start with a major development and examine resulting effects. Historians taking this second approach are interested in how consequences can help us make predictions and guide better decision-making in the future. The effects described in the opening to this module — the beginnings of numerous ongoing exchanges, changes to environments on four continents, and the creation of the Atlantic World — are only the beginning of the story of the outcomes of European exploration. TASK As you read Module 1-3, be sure to keep track of the many additional effects that followed from Columbus’s journey and the Spanish colonization of the Americas. The Columbian Exchange Transforms Four Continents Ongoing contact between Europe and the Americas, initiated by Columbus, started the process called the Columbian Exchange. This exchange — at times accidental and at other times purposeful — traded diseases, plants, animals, peoples, ideas, and resources between Africa, Europe, and the Americas. The numerous major and long-lasting effects this process unleashed transformed the economies and environments of all four continents. The lands bordering the Atlantic — Africa, the Americas, and Western Europe — were knit together by these exchanges into an “Atlantic World,” especially as the French, Dutch, and English followed the lead of the Portuguese and Spanish and began to establish their own colonies in the New World. Atlantic World The interactions between the peoples from the lands bordering the Atlantic Ocean (Africa, the Americas, and Western Europe) beginning in the late fifteenth century. AP ® TIP Consider how widespread epidemics aided Spanish conquest of the Americas. The Spaniards were aided in their conquest of the Americas as much by germs as by guns or horses. Because native peoples in the Western Hemisphere had had almost no contact with the rest of the world for millennia, they lacked immunity to most germs carried by Europeans. This meant that Europeans’ presence on their continents initiated demographic disasters, which native peoples called the Great Dying. These diseases, coupled with warfare, first eradicated the Arawak and Taino on Hispaniola, wiping out some 300,000 people. In the Incan empire, the population plummeted from about 9 million in 1530 to less than half a million by 1630. Among the Aztecs, the Maya, and their neighbors, the population collapsed from some 40 million people around 1500 to about 3 million a century and a half later. European germs spread northward as well, leading to catastrophic epidemics among the Pueblo peoples of the Southwest and the Mississippian cultures of the Southeast. Initially, the devastating decline in Indian populations ensured the victory of Spain and other European powers over American populations.  An Aztec with Smallpox Smallpox followed the Spanish conquest, killing thousands of native peoples. This illustration by the Spanish missionary Bernardino de Sahagún shows a woman with smallpox aided by a native healer. In what ways does this image represent a european perspective on native disease? In the Columbian Exchange, America provided Europeans with high- yielding, nutrient-rich foods like maize, tomatoes, and potatoes, as well as new indulgences like tobacco and cacao. In exchange, Europe and Africa sent rice, wheat, rye, oats, soybeans, lemons, and oranges to the Western Hemisphere (Map 1.5). These grain crops transformed the American landscape, particularly in North America, where wheat eventually became a major food source. As a part of the Columbian Exchange, Europeans also brought animals unknown in the Americas, including cattle, horses, chickens, pigs, and honeybees. Cattle and pigs, in particular, changed native diets, while horses inspired new methods of farming, transportation, and warfare throughout the Americas. Columbian Exchange The biological exchange between the Americas and the rest of the world between 1492 and the end of the sixteenth century. Although its initial impact was strongest in the Americas and Europe, it was soon felt globally. MAP 1.5 The Columbian Exchange, Sixteenth Century When Europeans made contact with Africa and the Americas, they initiated an exchange of plants, animals, and germs that transformed the food, labor, and mortality of all four continents. What positive and negative ramifications of the Columbian Exchange on the Atlantic World are shown on this map? Description The label marked on North America lists the items exchanged with Europe/Africa/Mediterranean World, accompanied by an illustration as follows: Beans, Cacao, Corn, Pineapples, Potatoes, Pumpkins, Squash, and Turkeys. The label marked on European lists the items exchanged with North America, accompanied by illustration as follows: Chickens, Horses, Lemons, Oranges, Pigs, Rice, and Wheat. The label marked South of North America reads 'Syphilis' indicating the uneven exchange of disease with Africa. The label marked on Africa lists the uneven exchange of disease to South America: Diphtheria, Influenza, Malaria, Measles, Smallpox, and Typhus. The conquered Incan and Aztec empires also provided vast quantities of gold and silver to Spain, making it the treasure-house of Europe and ensuring its dominance on the continent for several decades. Elite Europeans exploited the labor of poor Europeans, American Indians, and Africans in these colonial societies to extract these precious resources, and also enhanced their wealth through the cultivation of staple crops such as sugar. Sugar was first developed in the East Indies, but became a source of enormous profits once it took root in the Portuguese colony of Brazil. Moreover, when mixed with cacao, sugar created an addictive drink known as chocolate. Africans’ partial immunity to malaria and yellow fever made them attractive to Europeans seeking enslaved labor to produce valuable exports of sugar and tobacco on Caribbean islands after the native population was decimated. The continued desire of European nations to acquire colonies in the Americas was a direct result of witnessing the enormous wealth garnered by Spanish conquests. Between 1500 and 1650, Spanish ships carried home more than 180 tons of gold and 16,000 tons of silver from Mexico and Bolivia. About one-fifth of this amount, and indeed one-fifth of all other exports from Spanish colonies, was taken by the Spanish crown for taxes. The rest was dispersed among wealthy supporters of the expeditions, the families of conquistadors or encomenderos, or soldiers and sailors who returned from America. Indeed, the great wealth of the Americas transformed economies throughout Europe, and profits from colonialism and slavery played an important role in this transformation. Starting just after 1500, Western Europe experienced a globally unprecedented period of sustained growth resulting from capturing the land resources of the Americas. This influx of wealth from the Columbian Exchange accelerated the end of feudalism, a European social and economic system in which peasants lived and worked on a noble lord’s land in exchange for military protection, and helped trigger the rise of a new order: capitalism. feudalism A social and economic system organized by a hierarchy of hereditary classes. Lower social orders owed loyalty to the social classes above them and, in return, received protection or land. capitalism An economic system based on private ownership of property and the open exchange of goods between property holders. At the same time, American riches generated in the Columbian Exchange increasingly flowed beyond Spain’s borders. The Netherlands was a key beneficiary of this wealth, becoming a center for Spanish shipbuilding and trade. Still, the Dutch were never completely under Spanish control, and they traded gold, silver, and other items to France, England, and other European nations. Goods also followed older routes across the Mediterranean to the Ottoman empire, where traders could make huge profits on exotic items from the Americas. Thus, while some Europeans suffered under Spanish power, others benefited from the riches brought to the continent. By the late sixteenth century, the desire for a greater share of those riches revitalized imperial dreams among the French and English as well as the Dutch. Rulers of European nations of the Atlantic World began to fund expeditions to North America. The Spanish limited the bulk of the benefits of the Columbian Exchange to aristocratic families and merchants. Enriched European nobles spent their wealth mainly on luxury goods imported from the Americas, Asia, or other European nations. Very little of this wealth was invested in improving conditions at home. Indeed, the rapid infusion of gold and silver fueled inflation, making it harder for ordinary people to afford the necessities of life. aristocratic Members of the highest class of society, typically nobility who inherited their ranks and titles. REVIEW What were the short-term consequences of Columbus’s voyages in both Europe and the Americas? How did the Columbian Exchange transform both the Americas and Europe? European Encounters with West Africa Enslaved Africans were among the most lucrative “goods” traded by European merchants. Slavery had been practiced in Europe, the Americas, Africa, and other parts of the world for centuries. But in most times and places, enslaved people were captives of war or individuals sold in payment for deaths or injuries to conquering enemies. Under such circumstances, enslaved people generally retained some legal rights, and bondage was rarely permanent and almost never inheritable. With the advent of large-scale European participation in the African slave trade, however, the system of bondage began to change, transforming Europe and Africa and, in turn, the Americas. In the fifteenth century, Europeans were most familiar with North Africa, a region deeply influenced by Islam and characterized by large kingdoms, well-developed cities, and an extensive network of trading centers. In northeast Africa, including Egypt, city-states flourished, with ties to India, the Middle East, and China. In northwest Africa, Timbuktu linked North Africa to empires south of the Sahara as well as to Europe. Here enslaved Africans labored for wealthier Africans in a system of bound labor long familiar to Europeans. By the mid-sixteenth century, European nations established competing forts along the African coast from the Gold Coast and Senegambia in the north to the Bight of Biafra and West Central Africa farther south. The men and women shipped from these forts to Europe generally came from communities that had been raided or conquered by more powerful groups. African empires able to trade captives at the coast for European goods, most notably guns, gained power, which they used to expand and capture more humans for trade. Enslaved Africans from the interior of West Africa arrived at the coast exhausted, hungry, dirty, and with few clothes. They worshipped gods unfamiliar to Europeans, and their cultural customs and social practices seemed, to them, strange and primitive. Over time, it was the image of the enslaved West Africans that came to dominate European visions of the entire continent. AP ® ANALYZING SOURCES Source: Mvemba A Nzinga (also known as Afonso I), King of the Kongo, Letter to John III, King of Portugal, 1526 “Sir, in our Kingdoms there is another great inconvenience which is of little service to God, and this is that many of our people, keenly desirous as they ar