History Midterm Study Guide PDF

The Columbian Exchange: The Columbian Exchange refers to the exchange of diseases, ideas, food, crops, and populations between the New World and the Old World following the voyage to the Americas by Christopher Columbus in 1492 Native Americans lacked immunities to European disea...

The Columbian Exchange: The Columbian Exchange refers to the exchange of diseases, ideas, food, crops, and populations between the New World and the Old World following the voyage to the Americas by Christopher Columbus in 1492 Native Americans lacked immunities to European diseases, so when disease came into their territory it became deadlier than any weapon, unleashing death on a scale never before seen, putting whole communities into chaos (95% Natives died)— causing a European boom. Major Developments for Spain in 1492: Spain is finally unified by Ferdinand and Isabella. The Muslims are conquered and kicked out of Granada The Jews are expelled from Spain Antonio de Nebrija codifies Spanish language Christopher Columbus, under Spanish sponsorship, set sail across the Atlantic and reached the Americas, initiating European exploration and colonization of the New World. The Black Legend (Spanish Leyenda Negra): Indicates an unfavorable image of Spain and Spaniards, accusing them of cruelty and intolerance, formerly prevalent in the works of many non-Spaniards American Exceptionalism: A term used to describe the belief that the U.S. is an extraordinary nation with a special role to play on human history The Founding of Colonial Virginia: Colonial Virginia was founded in 1607 with the settlement of Jamestown. Early settlers faced hardships like disease, hunger, and conflicts with Native Americans The colony succeeded by growing tobacco, which became a key cash crop. Over time, enslaved Africans replaced indentured servants as the main labor force (1619). In 1619, Virginia established the House of Burgesses, the first representative government in the colonies. ○ Used the law to protect the interests of enslavers. Slavery was born in the Americas here in 1680 when Virgina law enacted—an act for “preventing Negros Insurrections” Indian Conflicts: Bacon’s Rebellion: ○ Grew out of tensions between wealthy English landowners and English settlers (poor settlers) ○ Governor William Berkeley represents the planters who win the rebellion (English landowners)  ○ Nathanial Bacon- council of advisors—named as the leader for the poor settlers, so they could get land. ○ There wasn’t enough land to give to the indentured servants ○ Bacon died of typhus in the autumn of 1676, and his successors surrendered to Berkeley in January 1677. King Philip's War (1675-1676): ○ A conflict between Native Americans and English colonists in New England. ○ It started because colonists kept taking Native land, and the Native Americans, led by Metacom (King Philip), fought back. ○ The war was very violent, with towns destroyed and many people killed. ○ The colonists won, Metacom was killed, and Native power in the region was destroyed. ○ After the war, many Native Americans were killed, enslaved, or forced off their land. Slavery: The condition or fact of being entirely subject to, or under the domination of some power Very old institution Racism: A social construct (we invent something to categorize people) Relatively “New” phenomenon Race and Religion in Early Americas: Native Americans and the English Colonists: ○ British engagement with the Irish—>the “composite-nation” ○ Puritan and Pilgrim relations with Natives in New England ○ English settlers relations with Natives Bartolomé de Las Casas: The Defender of the Indians You can’t exploit, murder Indians if you believe in the Christian concept of the human family under God (wins) Apart of The Valladolid Debate (1550-1551) against Sepúlveda John Locke: Wrote Two Treatises on Government State of War doesn’t exist—not to be equated with State of Nature Government—protects rights we already have God “drives” man into society—first true society which existed between man and women Life, Liberty, property Thomas Hobbes: Author of the Leviathan Shaped by the experience of the English Civil War All about order  “Life is Nasty, Brutish, and Short” Give all your rights to one person—embodiment of the state Idea of social contract Chaos leads to order Shakespeare on the Native Americans: Created a lot of stereotypes about them That they were often drunk CEO of Racism? Slaves journey across Atlantic Ocean: The journey enslaved Africans took across the Atlantic Ocean, called the Middle Passage, was brutal and deadly. People were packed tightly into ships, often chained together, with little food, water, or air. Many died from disease, starvation, or mistreatment during the voyage. Once they arrived in the New World, enslaved people were forced to work on plantations, especially growing crops like sugar, tobacco, and cotton. They faced harsh conditions, long hours, and severe punishment. Despite this, enslaved Africans resisted in many ways, including slowing their work, sabotaging equipment, or escaping. Some organized slave rebellions to fight for their freedom. ○ Stono Rebellion: Enslaved people tried to escape to Spanish Florida, and other uprisings in the Caribbean Unsuccessful but it was a violent reminder that enslaved people would fight for freedom—1739 First Great Awakening: The revitalization of religious piety that swept through the American colonies between the 1730s and 1770s George Whitefield: ○ Most famous itinerant preacher ○ Said that the only type of faith that pleased God was heartfelt ○ He and other itinerant preachers had achieved making the revivals popular Elements of the First Great Awakening—D.I.E: ○ Democratic Religious Movement: insisted that all should have the religious experience; stirred impulse towards independence among colonists; broke down strong denominational ties; challenged religious authority ○ Itinerancy: Preachers roamed rural and urban areas and held meetings ○ Enthusiasm: Emotional manifestations (weeping, fainting, physical movements) in contrast to staid and formal Anglican and Congregational worship. Message: ○ Personal Piety ○ Individual revival Seven Years’ War: England and France (with their Indian allies) France and Britain feuded over the boundaries of their respective North American empires; the feud turned bloody (1754) when a force of British colonists and Native allies, led by George Washington, killed a French diplomat—victories were often the result of alliances with Natives. Britain won the war, gaining control of Canada and territory east of the Mississippi River End of middle ground—largely French colonists (traders) and Natives of Canada and Midwest. England enters the fray and exerts itself on behalf of the American colonist after a prolonged period of benign neglect. England becomes the dominant power in North America and the world at the conclusion of the conflict in 1763–Treaty of Paris Natives are even more on the defensive than they were prior to the war (bargaining position is much weaker). British colonist (13 Colonies) are happy to serve under the king, happy to be British by the end of the century, they will become an independent country—>enter the Age of Revolutions The war left Britain deeply in debt. ○ To pay off this debt, Britain taxed the American colonies, introducing laws like the Sugar Act and the Stamp Act, which angered colonists. Colonists felt these taxes were unfair because they had no representation in Parliament. The war also increased tensions between colonists and Native Americans as settlers moved west into lands Britain had promised to protect for Native tribes The Seven Years’ War weakened colonial loyalty to Britain and set the stage for the American Revolution by fueling resentment over taxation, representation, and British control of colonial life. Revolutionary War: Taxes: ○ Sugar Act (1764): Taxed sugar and molasses, hurting colonial trade and smuggling ○ Stamp Act (1765): An act of the British Parliament that exacted revenue from the American colonies by imposing a stamp duty on newspapers and legal and commercial documents ○ Declaratory Act (1766): We have the right to pass laws in England and the U.S. regardless of what you want and it’s binding ○ Townshend Duties (1767): Customs and Duties on glass, lead, paints, and tea that came into the colonies. More protests, but tax on tea remained  ○ Boston Massacre (1770): Killing of 5 colonists by British regulars on March 5, 1770 ○ Tea Act (1773): Gave the British East India Company a monopoly on tea sales, leading to the Boston Tea Party. ○ Boston Tea Party (1773): Political protest by the Sons of Liberty in Boston, on December 16, 1773 (dumped tea) ○ Coercive (Intolerable) Acts-Passed to punish Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party, these laws: Organizations: ○ Sons of Liberty: A secret group that organized protests, including the Boston Tea Party, and spread anti-British sentiment. ○ Committees of Correspondence: Created to share news and organize resistance across the colonies. ○ Continental Congress: Met to discuss colonial grievances and eventually declared independence in 1776. The American Revolution created a new government and provided an example for others to follow Declaration of Independence signed in Philadelphia (1776) Revolutionary War (Actual Battle): General outlines of the conflict and its causes: ○ 1767: The Virginia House of Burgess boycotts the British slave trade in protest of the Townsend Acts. Georgia and the Carolinas follow suit ○ 1770: Crispus Attucks- killed by British forces in Boston, Massachusetts (one of the first colonists to die in war). ○ The war began in 1775 with the Battles of Lexington and Concord (Black minutemen in fighting) and escalated as the colonists sought full independence from British rule. ○ The war was caused by British taxation, colonial demands for self-governance, and ideological differences 3 myths of the American Revolution: ○ British tyranny ○ Unity of colonists ○ Won the war on our own (Americans) Battles and Issues Over Slavery: ○ While the Declaration of Independence spoke of liberty, slavery persisted. Northern states began to abolish slavery, but it remained entrenched in the South. Vermont first colony to abolish slavery. ○ Key Battles: Bunker Hill, Saratoga (turning point), Yorktown (final major battle. Yorktown and the End of the War: ○ 1781: British General Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown after being trapped by American and French forces, effectively ending the war. ○ The Treaty of Paris (1783) officially recognized American independence Early American Republic: Articles of Confederation: ○ America’s first constitution (1781-1789) created a weak federal government that lacked the power to tax, regulate trade, or enforce laws ○ Continental Congress ratified this in 1781, which allowed each state 1 vote Northwest Ordinance: ○ Established a process for admitting new states from the Northwest Territory and banned slavery in the region Shays' Rebellion: ○ Thousands of farmers in western Massachusetts struggled under debt, worsened by weak local and national economies—High taxes ○ Led by Daniel Shay (“Shaysites”), used tactics like the patriots, blocking courthouses to prevent foreclosure orders (rebellion). ○ It exposed the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation and led to calls for a stronger national government (after revised Articles). Thomas Jefferson: a spokesman for democracy, was an American Founding Father, the principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776), and the third President of the United States (1801–1809). REVOLUTION OF 1800: ○ The peaceful transition of power from the Federalist John Adams to Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson, marking a turning point in U.S. political history. Contradictory Founding Lecture: ○ Read video lecture notes ○ The contradiction between Jefferson’s advocacy for liberty and his ownership of enslaved people Louisiana Purchase: ○ 1803- Jefferson purchased the Louisiana Territory from France, doubling the size of the U.S. Barbary Wars (The Tripolitan War): A series of conflicts between the U.S. and North African states over piracy and demand for tribute from American ships John Adams: a remarkable political philosopher, served as the second President of the United States (1797-1801), after serving as the first Vice President under President George Washington. Quasi-War with France: ○ Undeclared naval war with France during John Adams presidency ○ Between U.S. and France (1798-1800)—fought on the Atlantic ○ Largely over trade disputes and diplomatic tensions. ○ Mostly between naval vessels and American merchant ships Haitian Revolution: ○ A successful slave revolt in the French colony of St. Domingue (Haiti). ○ This heightened fears of slave uprisings in the U.S.  ○ Instilled perennial fears of slave revolts in whites and it emboldened African Americans Alien and Sedition Acts: ○ Allowed the federal government to deport foreign nationals, or “aliens,” who seemed to pose a national security threat ○ Caused a backlash in 2 ways First: shocked opponents articulated a new and expansive vision for liberty Second: Madison and Jefferson helped organize opposition from state governments ○ These acts made it harder for immigrants to become citizens and criminalized criticism of the government. WAR OF 1812: Took place during the Napoleonic Wars Causes: ○ The British are interfering with American shipping ○ The British are engaging in the impressment (kidnapping) American sailors ○ Americans believe that the British are arming the Natives who are resisting/preventing America’s westward expansion ○ The “War Hawks” in Congress are itching for war and more territory (especially Canada)—Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun of S.C. Effects: ○ Heroism of figures like Andrew Jackson, Oliver Hazard Perry, and William Henry Harrison increases American nationalism ○ Weakens the strength of the Natives ○ Increases domestic manufacturing since because of the war trade was disrupted and more had to be made at home ○ Proves that the U.S. can stand against the mightiest navy on earth and survive…hope for the future prosperity of the nation The War of 1812 (1812-15) was fought between the United States and Great Britain, primarily over the impressment of American sailors by the British Navy, as well as disagreements over trade, western expansion, and Native American policy. The war ended inconclusively after three years of fighting Second Great Awakening: religious revival that emphasized emotional preaching, personal salvation, and social reform. Camp Meetings: Large outdoor gatherings inspired repentance and conversion. Evangelical Growth: Methodist and Baptist churches expanded, appealing to common people. Legacy: It democratized religion and tied faith to social change in America. Intro: ○ The great figure of this awakening was Charles Grandison Finney  ○ Not only was he the most successful and famous preacher, he was the revival’s great strategist and theologian Published a “how-to” manual, Lectures on the Revival of Religion Consequences of Revivalism Changed Lives= New Reform: ○ By the 1830s revival converts were seeking to galvanize the “benevolent empire,” as the collection of voluntary associations Religious Inspired Reform Movements: ○ Temperance: opposed to alcohol consumption ○ Sabbatarianism: government (including the post office) must observe the Sabbath and not conduct business ○ Abolitonism ○ The Women’s Movement The Economy Mixed with Renewed Religious Fervor: ○ It isn’t ana vidente that the area where the Erie Canal was being built included areas that surged with the tide of religious revivalism in the Second Great Awakening The Missouri Compromise: Jesse Thomas and Henry Clay of Kentucky (the Great Compromiser) made the Missouri Compromise of 1820– 3 parts a. Congress would admit Missouri as a slave state b. Congress would admit Maine as a free state, maintaining the balance between the number of free and slave states c. Slavery was prohibited north of the 36°30′ latitude in the Louisiana Purchase territory Importance: a. Preserved the balance between free and slave states in Congress. b. Temporarily eased sectional tensions between the North and South. c. Highlighted growing divisions over slavery, setting the stage for future conflicts. d. Split the Democratic-Republican party entirely along sectional lines—trouble to come Jacksonian America: a period characterized by the rise of democracy for the "common man" and significant political and social changes. Early Life: Born in 1767 to a poor family, Jackson rose to prominence as a war hero during the War of 1812, particularly after his victory at the Battle of New Orleans.  Democratic Expansion: Jackson championed the rights of the "common man," broadening voter participation by eliminating property requirements for white male suffrage in many states Opposition to Bank: Nicholas Biddle is enlisted the Presidents of the 2nd bank of the U.S. (Henry Clay) to confront Jackson over the issue of banks by forcing the issue of renewing the charter for the 2nd Bank of the U.S. Biddle seeks renewal, but Jackson vetoes it. Jackson ordered his Secretary of Treasury to remove all the money the federal government had from the 2nd Bank of the U.S. Indian Removal: He signed the Indian Removal Act of 1830, leading to the forced relocation of Native American tribes along the Trail of Tears, causing widespread suffering and death Nullification Crisis: Jackson firmly opposed South Carolina's attempt to nullify federal tariffs, asserting federal authority while avoiding armed conflict through compromise. Conflict with John C. Calhoun: Jackson clashed with his vice president, John C. Calhoun, over nullification, as Calhoun supported states' rights while Jackson defended the Union Temperance: The crusade against strong drink, was by far the largest reform movement of the early 1800s, and one of the most successful. It was spearheaded by conservative Calvinist clergy who were concerned about the social disorder that followed the aftermath of the Revolution Movement’s leadership shifted from conservative to evangelical minister and lay people Drinking was apart of Public Culture—> they drank on all occasions Results: ○ Temperance reform proved effective. After peaking in 1830 (roughly 5 gallons), alcohol consumption sharply declined by the 1840s (under 2) Abolitionism: Goals: ○ Abolitionists sought the immediate emancipation of all enslaved people and the end of racial discrimination. Gradual Emancipation: to give the South time to adapt Colonization: predicated on the assumption that slaves will have to leave the U.S. either voluntarily or not Immediate Emancipation: generally evolves to reject compensation for planters…generally runs the spectrum from nonviolent main organizational force was the American Anti-Slavery Society  Opposition: Many Southerners defended slavery as essential to their economy and way of life, leading to deep sectional divides. Impact: Abolitionism heightened tensions between the North and South. It played a key role in the lead-up to the Civil War, as debates over slavery’s expansion intensified. Women’s Suffrage Movement: Seneca Falls Convention (1848): Organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, it produced the Declaration of Sentiments, demanding equal rights, including voting rights, for women. Key Figures: ○ Susan B. Anthony: A leading activist who tirelessly campaigned for women’s voting rights. ○ Elizabeth Cady Stanton: A writer and organizer who shaped the movement's message. ○ Sojourner Truth: A former enslaved woman who linked suffrage with racial equality. Organizations: Groups like the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) pushed for voting rights through state and federal campaigns. Strategies: Activists used protests, petitions, speeches, and civil disobedience to advance their cause. 19th Amendment: The movement culminated in 1920 with the ratification of the 19th Amendment, granting women the right to vote. Importance: The Women’s Suffrage Movement was a major step toward gender equality, empowering women to participate in democracy and shaping future fights for civil rights. Mexican American War: Manifest Destiny: the doctrine or belief that the expansion of the U.S. throughout the American continents was both justified and inevitable—John O’Sullivan Main Causes: ○ Annexation of Texas: Mexico opposed the U.S. annexing Texas in 1845. ○ Border Dispute: The U.S. claimed the Rio Grande as Texas's border; Mexico claimed the Nueces River.  ○ Manifest Destiny: Americans believed they had a divine right to expand to the Pacific Ocean. ○ Desire for California: President James K. Polk sought Mexican territories, but Mexico refused to sell. ○ Rio Grande Skirmish: A clash between U.S. and Mexican troops near the Rio Grande led to war. Manifest Destiny justified the war as part of America’s mission to expand. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) ended the war, with Mexico ceding vast territories, completing much of the U.S.'s westward expansion. Political Crisis of the 1850s: Compromise of 1850: ○ Allowed California to enter as a free state. ○ Strengthened the Fugitive Slave Act, angering Northerners. ○ Popular sovereignty decided slavery in new territories, increasing tensions. Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852): ○ Harriet Beecher Stowe’s novel exposed the horrors of slavery, intensifying Northern opposition. Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854): ○ Allowed popular sovereignty in Kansas and Nebraska, overturning the Missouri Compromise. ○ Led to Bleeding Kansas, violent clashes between pro- and anti-slavery settlers. Fighting occurred as each group tried to gain popular vote; seeking statehood with slavery Results of Dredd Scott Case: ○ Slaves don’t have rights of citizens ○ No claim to freedom— lawsuit filed while living in Missouri (slave state) ○ Congress cannot forbid slavery in any state— Missouri Compromise (1850)—> unconstitutional John Brown’s Raid (1859): ○ Abolitionist John Brown attempted to start a slave revolt by seizing the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry. ○ The raid terrified the South and deepened sectional divides. Election of 1860: ○ Abraham Lincoln, a Republican opposed to slavery’s expansion, won the presidency.  ○ Southern states saw this as a threat and began to secede. Secession: ○ South Carolina seceded in December 1860, followed by other Southern states, forming the Confederate States of America Economic and Regional Differences (North and South): The North: ○ Industrial economy with factories, railroads, and wage labor. ○ Larger urban population and focus on trade, manufacturing, and innovation. ○ Opposed slavery’s expansion, as it threatened free labor systems. The South: ○ Agricultural economy dependent on cash crops like cotton, supported by enslaved labor. ○ Rural society with large plantations and minimal industrialization. ○ Defended slavery as essential to their economy and way of life. Why Compromise Failed: ○ Compromise repeatedly failed to prevent the Civil War because it could not resolve the deep-rooted divisions between the North and South over slavery, states’ rights, and economic differences. While compromises temporarily delayed conflict, they often intensified tensions instead of solving the underlying issues. Civil War: Major Causes: ○ Slavery: The central issue, with the South defending it as essential and the North opposing its expansion. ○ Sectionalism: Economic and cultural differences between the industrial North and agricultural South. ○ States’ Rights: Southern states wanted the right to govern themselves, including decisions about slavery. ○ Failed Compromises: Compromise of 1850, Kansas-Nebraska Act, and Dred Scott Decision deepened tensions. ○ Election of 1860: Lincoln’s victory led Southern states to secede, seeing it as a threat to slavery and their way of life. Lincoln’s Shifting Views on Slavery:  ○ Early Views: Initially, Lincoln prioritized preserving the Union over ending slavery, though he opposed its expansion. ○ Shift Toward Abolition: By 1862, Lincoln viewed slavery as morally wrong and a threat to the Union, paving the way for the Emancipation Proclamation. Importance of the Abolitionist Movement: ○ Goals: Immediate emancipation and racial equality. ○ Impact: Mobilized public opinion, pressured political leaders, and exposed the brutality of slavery, helping fuel the Civil War. Purpose of the Emancipation Proclamation: ○ Issued: January 1, 1863, by Lincoln. ○ Declared: Enslaved people in Confederate-held areas were free. ○ Goals: Weaken the Confederacy by undermining their labor system. Strengthen the Union by encouraging enslaved people to flee to Union lines and join the military. Shifted the war’s focus from preserving the Union to ending slavery. Changes in Battlefield Technology: ○ Rifled Muskets and Minie Balls: More accurate and deadly, increasing casualties. ○ Railroads: Allowed faster troop and supply movements. ○ Ironclad Ships: Revolutionized naval warfare, making wooden ships obsolete. ○ Telegraph: Enabled real-time communication between commanders and government leaders. ○ Medical Advances: Improved techniques for treating battlefield injuries but struggled to keep up with the scale of casualties. Reconstruction: Major Developments: ○ Freedmen's Bureau (1865): Established to assist formerly enslaved people by providing food, shelter, education, and legal help. Helped millions of African Americans find work and establish schools Reconstruction Amendments: ○ 13th Amendment: Abolished slavery in the U.S., legally freeing African Americans ○ 14th Amendment: Gives nation citizenship rights to anyone born in the U.S.  ○ 15th Amendment: Black men are allowed to vote Black Codes: ○ Southern states passed restrictive laws, known as Black Codes, to limit the rights of African Americans, forcing many into labor contracts that resembled slavery The Ku Klux Klan (KKK): Terrorist Group ○ Organized in Pulaski, Tennessee, and had spread to nearly every state of the former Confederacy by 1868–thousands of individual citizens men and women, white and Black, had their homes raided and were whipped, raped, or murdered Enforcement Acts: ○ The Enforcement Acts made it criminal to deprive African Americans of their civil rights, particularly their right to vote, hold office, and be free from violence or intimidation. These laws were aimed at curbing the activities of groups like the Ku Klux Klan and ensuring African Americans' protections during Reconstruction. Definition of Reconstruction: ○ The effort to restore Southern states to the Union and to redefine African Americans’ place in American society—began before the Civil War ended The “Greater Reconstruction” and the American West: Some have labeled this era of consolidation and expansion the Greater Reconstruction, where the government tried to impose a universal set of values on various groups with mixed results Especially regarding Indians and African Americans, it’s clear that for widely different purposes, the American government was trying to emphasize the concept of the individual farmer Myth of the cowboy: ○ Portrays cowboys as heroic, rugged, and independent figures who tamed the Wild West. They are often shown as lone, fearless adventurers defending settlers and battling outlaws. This image emphasizes American ideals like freedom and bravery, but it overlooks the hard, often dangerous reality of cowboy life, which was more diverse, difficult, and less glamorous than depicted in popular culture Major Battles of the Indian Wars: ○ Battle of Little Bighorn (1876): Also known as Custer's Last Stand, it was a major victory for the Lakota Sioux and Cheyenne against General  George Armstrong Custer’s 7th Cavalry. The battle marked one of the most significant defeats for the U.S. Army during the Indian Wars. ○ Battle of Wounded Knee (1890): The U.S. Army killed around 150 Lakota Sioux, including women and children, in a massacre at Wounded Knee, South Dakota. It is considered the last major conflict of the Indian Wars. White Americans responded to Native American groups by attempting to assimilate them through policies like forced relocation (Indian Removal Act), establishing reservations, and passing the Dawes Act to divide tribal lands. They also used boarding schools to erase Native cultures and convert children to Christianity. The goal was to replace Native ways of life with European-American customs, often resulting in the loss of land, culture, and sovereignty for Native peoples. The Dawes Act (1887) aimed to assimilate Native Americans by dividing tribal lands into individual plots for families to farm. The goal was to encourage Native Americans to adopt European-American agricultural practices, but it led to the loss of much Native land to white settlers and weakened tribal governance.