Child and Youth Final Exam Review CORE INFO PDF

**Child and Youth Final Exam Core Info** **Mitchell Reid** #### **Lecture 6: Children and Family** **Definition of Family** - **Western Family Type**: Nuclear family (parents and dependent children); deviations judged. - **Non-Western Family Type**: Children may lead households effe...

**Child and Youth Final Exam Core Info** **Mitchell Reid** #### **Lecture 6: Children and Family** **Definition of Family** - **Western Family Type**: Nuclear family (parents and dependent children); deviations judged. - **Non-Western Family Type**: Children may lead households effectively and happily. - **Children's Perspective**: Love, care, and support define a family more than genetic ties (Pryor & Emery, 2004). **Family Practices** - Importance lies in what families *do*, not what they *are*. - Families create and reproduce themselves through interactions and activities. **Family as a Social System** - Reciprocal relationships: Parents influence children, and children influence parents. - Family systems are complex; members impact each other directly and indirectly (Smith et al., 2009). **Diversity in Families** - **Common-Law Families**: Increasing, often stepfamilies. - **Blended Families**: Many choose not to remarry. - **LGBTQ+ Representation**: 1 in 250 couples includes at least one transgender or nonbinary person. - **Functioning of Families**: Adoptive/stepfamilies slightly lower functioning; gay/lesbian parents show no significant differences in children's development. - **Cultural Examples**: Mennonite families enforce strict gender roles and shorter childhoods. **Modern Family Roles** - **Mothers**: Primarily caregivers but increasingly working outside the home. - **Fathers**: More involved in childcare; secondary caregivers but still primary providers. - **Grandparents**: Longer lifespans allow greater childcare contributions. - **Siblings**: Close proximity influences sibling dynamics positively or negatively. **Parenting Styles and Effects** - **Authoritative**: Clear expectations, reasoning, nurturance. - *Effects*: Independent, achievement-oriented, socially responsible children. - **Authoritarian**: Coercive discipline, low nurturance. - *Effects*: Anxiety, poor communication, and aggression (boys) or dependency (girls). - **Permissive**: Few demands or limits, high nurturance. - *Effects*: Low self-control and reliance. - **Uninvolved/Dismissive**: No limits or warmth. - *Effects*: Antisocial behavior, trust issues, poor relationships. - **Ethnic/SES Influence**: Authoritarian parenting more common in non-Western, non-white, and lower-SES families. **Children's Experiences in Families** - Desire for love, care, and support. - Only 1/3 of children feel included in family decision-making; discrepancies between children and adults on the importance of listening to children. - UNCRC Article 12 (children's right to voice) not well implemented at home. **Control and Punishment** - Parents control children's time and spaces, with consequences for disobedience (e.g., grounding, loss of privileges, corporal punishment). - Corporal punishment still legal in Canada (with restrictions), but most children oppose it. **COVID-19 Impact on Families** - Pandemic significantly altered parenting practices in Canada and globally. ### **Lecture 7: Children in School** #### **Compulsory Formal Schooling** - **Historical Context**: Began 3,000--4,000 years ago, initially for wealthy boys. Universal schooling is a modern concept, initially resisted by parents. - Purpose: To instill moral, mental, and physical discipline and socialize children into functioning adults. #### **Canadian Educational System** - Curriculum heavily focused on standardized testing and micromanaging teachers (Vaillancourt et al., 2021). - Homeschooling increased significantly during the pandemic, especially for grades 1-2. - **Reasons**: Dissatisfaction with school, curriculum, religious preference, or alternative due to trauma. - **Effects**: Mixed outcomes; some studies show better performance, others show lower academic and job outcomes (Kunzman & Gaither, 2020). #### **Compulsory Schooling in Developing Countries** - Focus on transitioning children from work to universal education. - Gender and class inequalities remain barriers to equitable education access. #### **Power, Control, and Discipline in Schools** - **Residential Schools in Canada**: Assimilated Indigenous children through force, with lasting generational trauma. - *Statistics*: Only 63% of First Nations youth graduate high school compared to 91% of non-Indigenous youth (Layton, 2023). - On-reserve graduation rates (46%) are much lower than off-reserve (73%). - **Control in Schools**: - **Space**: Hierarchical structures separate children from adults, regulate movement, and limit active student voice. - **Body**: Teachers train students to conform physically and behaviorally, controlling movement, attire, and routines. - **Time**: Strict timetables, homework, and extended classes reduce play/rest time. #### **Differences and Exclusion** - Not all children experience school equally (e.g., Roma children, Indigenous children, Mennonites, gender-based violence). - Standardized tests control children's education but often stress students and are not a valid assessment of their potential. #### **Peers, Friends, and Bullying** - **Peers**: Social equals; peer contact increases with age. - **Friends**: Close, loyal relationships often cited as a reason children enjoy school. - **Bullying**: Harmful acts with power imbalance, peaking during high school transition. - Bully-victims face higher risks, while bullies are often socially skilled and confident. - Inequalities outside school influence victimization (e.g., gender, culture, class). #### **Agency at School** - Children resist control through subtle acts but often face consequences. - Finnish schools exemplify "thick" agency by listening to children's voices. - **Thin Agency**: Gender norms, poverty, and societal expectations (e.g., girls in Tanzanian culture) reduce children's autonomy. #### **Recess and Outdoor Education** - Opportunities for unstructured play and connection with peers. - Outdoor education and integrating Indigenous knowledge are growing trends. #### **COVID-19's Impact on Education** - **Effects**: Learning shortfalls, mental health challenges, reduced bullying during closures. - Experts emphasize reopening schools and addressing the mental health of students and staff. #### **Discussion Points** - Reflection on how schools control and thin children's agency. - Strategies to make schools more child-centered (e.g., lessons from Finnish schools). ### **Lecture 8: Leisure and Play** #### **Play and Leisure** - Friendships with peers become increasingly significant during childhood. - Leisure activities are often influenced by peers but remain monitored and structured by parents. #### **Definitions** - **Leisure**: Unpaid, meaningful activities like hobbies, travel, or sports. Primarily associated with adults but relevant to children with less freedom. - **Play**: Spontaneous, carefree, and enjoyable; essential to child development. - *Maria Montessori*: \"Play is the child's work.\" #### **Five Characteristics of Play (Rubin et al., 1983):** 1. Intrinsically motivated and self-directed. 2. Freely chosen, with emphasis on the process rather than the outcome. 3. Pleasurable and enjoyable. 4. Nonliteral and make-believe. 5. Actively engaged in by participants. #### **Evolutionary Importance of Play** - Universal across species; fosters brain development and releases "feel-good" hormones. #### **Westernized Views on Play** - Seen as a tool for development and future competence. - Adults monitor and control play to limit risks, reducing free play opportunities. #### **Fears Surrounding Play** 1. **Fear 1: Decline of Play** a. Perception that children play less freely compared to previous generations. b. Play spaces are increasingly controlled by adults, with organized, supervised activities replacing free play. c. **Research Highlights**: i. Outdoor play has decreased (e.g., 25% of children play outdoors today vs. 80% of their parents). ii. **Tandy (1999)**: Adults limit outdoor play due to safety concerns. iii. **Loebach (2013)**: Neighborhood design affects play (e.g., gated communities vs. low-income areas). d. Challenges include societal design prioritizing cars and parental fears of legal consequences. 2. **Fear 2: Media Replacement** e. Electronics and media increasingly dominate children's leisure time. f. Media can limit physical play, yet children are often kept indoors for safety. g. **Paradox**: Media is both monitored and criticized, leaving fewer options for play. #### **Organized Play** - Play is structured to prepare children for adulthood, emphasizing "educational" or "improving" activities. - **Statistics Canada (2000/2001)**: - 86% of children aged 6--17 participated in extracurricular activities. - Participation is higher in urban areas, two-parent households, and higher-income families. - Differences noted in types of activities across genders. #### **Exclusion in Play** - Children from lower-income families or marginalized groups often have limited access to structured play or extracurriculars. #### **Children's Right to Play** - *Article 31*: Children have the right to rest, leisure, play, and participation in cultural activities. - Society often restricts these rights by prioritizing safety, structured activities, or media use over free play. #### **Potential Solutions** 1. Promote outdoor play in safe environments. 2. Empower children to make their own choices in play and leisure. 3. Involve children in planning for residential spaces, school curriculum, and extracurricular activities. 4. Equip parents with strategies to protect children without over-restricting their freedom. 5. Encourage unstructured, child-led play. ### **Lecture 9: Children at Work** #### **Conceptualization of Childhood and Work** - In Western cultures, childhood is viewed through: - *Developmental theory*: Focus on protection and innocence. - *UNCRC*: Emphasizes universal rights and protections. - *Romantic discourse*: Childhood as a carefree and play-filled stage. - Contrasting terms: - **Child work**: Light, informal, or culturally accepted work in developed countries (e.g., babysitting, chores). - **Child labour**: Exploitative work, typically associated with developing countries, especially when harmful or beyond norms. #### **Child Labour: Prevalence and Impacts** - Most prevalent in **Africa** and **Asia/Pacific regions**. - **1 in 4 African children** (ages 5-14) and **1 in 5 Asian children** in this age group work. - Globally, **1 in 10 children** is impacted (UNICEF, 2023). - Common reasons: - Poverty or financial strain (e.g., illness, caregiver loss, job insecurity). - Parental encouragement of light work, especially in informal sectors (e.g., babysitting). - In agriculture: migrant or family farm labor. #### **Child Agricultural Work in North America** - Thousands of children work on farms (family or migrant). - Historically excluded from regulation and deemed "good work." - Migrant families (e.g., Mennonites): - View work as central to life. - Shorter childhoods with little playtime. #### **Unseen Child Work: Caregiving** - Young carers provide unpaid caregiving for family members (e.g., siblings, disabled parents). - Often feel "forced" to care and work long hours, limiting opportunities (Cohen et al., 2010). - This labor saves governments significant funds. #### **Gender and Child Labour** - Children's work is highly gendered: - Girls face the "triple burden" of school, work, and household chores (UNICEF, 2023). - Household work is often invisible in statistics (Wells, 2009). #### **Perspectives on Child Work** - Many children see work as a means of: - Gaining independence and escaping boredom. - Contributing to family finances. - Socializing and purchasing desired items. - Emotional labor: Many also provide emotional support in addition to physical tasks. #### **Children's Views on Work** - Research (Mizen et al., 2001): - Most children do not want work to be banned; they value fair pay, safe conditions, and respect. - Children negotiate their work roles with parents. - Blanket bans without consulting children may have negative consequences: - Drives them into worse conditions or unpaid, unsafe jobs. - Example: Boycotting products made by children can exacerbate poverty. #### **Key Implications** - Child labor should be addressed within the context of each child's lived experience. - Potential strategies: - Fair wages and safer conditions. - Validation and recognition of children's agency in their work. - Avoid sudden bans; instead, involve children in discussions about their needs and rights. #### **Implications for Westernized Families** - Separation of children from families due to financial strain or unsafe conditions. - Unseen work (e.g., household chores, caregiving) remains hidden, undervalued, and unsupported. ### **Lecture 10: Children and Health** #### **Content Advisory** - Topics covered include disability, obesity, mental health, suicidality, and death. - Trent Durham offers support services: [Counseling Services](https://www.trentu.ca/durham/student-life/student-supportservices/counsellingservices#:~:text=What%20we%20Offer%3A,%3B%20in%2Dperson%20or%20virtual). #### **Children\'s Health** - Health is both: - **Socially constructed**: Shaped by societal, historical, and cultural factors. - **Bio-medical**: Objectively experienced as a physical condition impacting body and mind. #### **History of Institutionalized Child Healthcare** - **First children's hospital**: Opened in 1855 post-industrialization. - Addressed poor living conditions of children. - Aimed to \"mould\" children into better societal members. - Promoted investment in children through green spaces, open-air schools. **Discourse:** Focused on \"fixing\" children and society by shaping their futures. #### **Children's Agency in Health** - Children demonstrate **competence and agency** in understanding illness and death (Bluebond-Langner, 1978). - Even children as young as 3 engage in \"mutual pretense\" to protect themselves and others. - Actively socialize themselves in their roles, countering the developmental discourse that views children as immature. #### **Disability: Three Models** 1. **Medical/Rehabilitation Model**: a. Disability seen as a personal issue requiring medical intervention. 2. **Social Model**: b. Disability arises due to societal barriers and lack of inclusivity. c. Focuses on civil rights and removing societal obstacles. 3. **Integrated Model**: d. Combines medical and social perspectives. e. Examines interaction between individual and environment. #### **Disability and Class Intersectionality** - Children from higher SES families often receive faster diagnoses, better treatment plans, and continuous support. - Lower SES correlates with more barriers, discrimination, and slower access to care. #### **Western Epidemics and Cross-Cultural Differences** **Epidemic \#1: Obesity** - Canada: Obesity prevalence tripled since the 1980s; 12% of school-aged children were obese (2009/2011). - UK bans TV ads for unhealthy foods targeting children and encourages healthier school meals. - Social disadvantages (e.g., low SES, immigration, lack of social support) contribute significantly to obesity. - **Ecological Model**: Prioritizes systemic factors over individual blame. **Epidemic \#2: ADHD** - Diagnosis and treatment vary: - UK focuses on discipline. - North America emphasizes medication. - Rates have risen globally, especially among boys aged 10-14. #### **Mental Health** - **UNICEF (2019)**: 1 in 7 adolescents experience mental health challenges. - Canada ranked 30th out of 38 developed countries in child well-being (UNICEF, 2020). **Mental Health and Intersectionality**: - **2SLGBTQ+ Youth**: Higher rates of poorer mental health (29% vs. 51%). - **Disability**: 33% with disabilities report poor mental health vs. 61% of those without. - Gender: - Females exhibit higher rates of depression, with the gap emerging by age 14. #### **Suicidality** - Suicide is the **second leading cause of death** among Canadian youth. - Males have a suicide rate **3 times higher** than females. - Stigma and lack of understanding remain barriers to addressing suicidality. #### **Social Support: A Key Protective Factor** - Social support from family or friends enhances mental health. - **Bélanger et al. (2016)**: Increased social support correlates with better health outcomes. - Over **55% of men** with consistent social support report excellent or very good mental health (Statistics Canada, 2023). #### **Key Takeaways** - Children's health issues intersect with social, cultural, and economic factors. - Focus should shift from individual blame to systemic solutions, such as improved inclusivity, social supports, and addressing poverty. - Recognition of children's agency and voices is critical in healthcare decisions.