Work Motivation BMAN10872 PDF

Work Motivation Dr Lina Siegl [email protected] 90,360 Why do people go to work? Why do people go to work? The lottery question If you won $10m in the lottery, would you… ❑ Stop working ❑ Continue working in the same job ❑ Continue working in a different job Why do people go to work? Gallu...

Work Motivation Dr Lina Siegl [email protected] 90,360 Why do people go to work? Why do people go to work? The lottery question If you won $10m in the lottery, would you… ❑ Stop working ❑ Continue working in the same job ❑ Continue working in a different job Why do people go to work? Gallup survey (2013) All about the money? What is work motivation? ‘Work motivation is a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual’s being, to initiate work-related behaviour, and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration.’ (Pinder, 1998, p.11) What is work motivation? Set of forces that initiate work-related behaviour, and determine its: Direction (prioritising) Intensity (effort) Duration (persistence) Definition recognises the influence of both: Environmental (extrinsic) forces (e.g., reward systems) Inherent (intrinsic) forces (e.g., individual needs and motives) What is work motivation? Motivation x ability = performance What motivates you? What makes you more or less motivated to work hard at University? 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. Menti.com 18 12 27 7 Why do we need to look at psychological theories to motivate our staff? ⚫ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1SY8qJntO4Q&feature= related ⚫ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A7xjQLGGxeg&feature= related ⚫ Psychological theory is underpinned by a scientific evidence base Motivation theories: Traditional approaches Theories on Motivation 1. Theory propositions: Understanding the theory’s key premises 2. Implications: What are the implications for individuals and organizations? How can theory be applied in practice? 3. Evaluating the theory: What are the strength and weaknesses of the theory Empirical Support (can/has it been tested?) Practical application (how useful is it?) Completeness (any unanswered questions?) ‘Old friends’ of work motivation 1. Hierarchy of needs theory 2. Equity theory 3. Expectancy theory 4. Goal-setting theory Hierarchy of Needs Theory Theory Main drivers of motivation and performance Hierarchy of needs Intrinsic, unfulfilled needs Maslow (1943) Most of Maslow’s writing not concerned with work motivation – later interest in application People are motivated at work by unfulfilled needs Hierarchy of needs theory: Propositions There is a set of needs that is universal to all people These needs exist in a hierarchy Individual will systematically satisfy needs by starting with basic ones and moving up hierarchy Basic needs always take precedence over all higher ones A person progresses through needs in order, moving on to next one only after preceding one fulfilled A substantially satisfied need no longer motivates Hierarchy of needs theory: Application How does this theory apply to work settings? Hierarchy of needs theory: Implications When pay and security are poor, employees will be motivated primarily towards these needs As conditions improve, social needs (e.g., support from managers and co-workers) will become more important With much improved work environment, work becomes important for self-esteem and selfactualization So, need to ensure employees’ needs are fulfilled to get the best out of them Hierarchy of needs theory: Evaluation Theory is difficult to actually test and there is a lack of consistent empirical support (Wahba & Bridwell, 1976; Ronen, 2001) Some practical applications (emphasizes need for a secure and supportive working environment) but mainly a philosophical theory - How do we shift from one need to the next? - Are needs really hierarchical or concurrent? - Vague concept of self-actualization Implies that everyone has exactly the same needs in life – is this the case? (cultural differences) Equity Theory Theory Main drivers of motivation and performance Equity (Un)Fairness in inputs and outcomes ⚫ Adams (1965) ⚫ Based on the principle of social comparison ⚫ Basic premise is that individuals seek fairness at work ⚫ People are motivated to work when they perceive (un)fairness in comparison to other people Equity Theory: Propositions Person perceives themselves in comparison with Other Balance of Inputs (effort, time, ideas) and Outputs (pay, working conditions, recognition) Example of inequity http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Go8tnl21MU https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7n3Sov7Zctk Inequity in practice ⚫ Equality of ratios as perceived by Person represents equity (leads to job satisfaction and commitment) Person 50:50 Person 50:50 Other 50:50 Other 200:200 ⚫ Inequality of ratios as perceived by Person represents inequity (leads to feelings of tension which are the source of low motivation) Person 50:50 Person 50:75 Other 50:75 Other 50:50 Equity Theory: Implications Inequity can lead to positive outcomes in the case of overpayment – if you want someone to work harder, pay them more! - But people don’t always change their behaviour Can also distort inputs and outputs, or change comparison Importance of fairness in rewards Importance of visibility of procedures - People will make comparisons, and secrecy can lead to these being based on rumours or misinformation A related approach Organisational justice theory (e.g., Greenberg, 1987) Same premise as equity theory, only recognises three forms of justice: Distributive/substantive justice: Do people believe they have received fair rewards for their contributions and is the allocation of rewards fair? Procedural justice: Are the procedures used to make organisational decisions considered fair? Interpersonal justice: The degree to which people are treated with politeness, dignity and respect by decision-makers when executing procedures or determining outcomes Organisational Justice ORGANISATIONAL JUSTICE Organisational Justice: Implications Equity theory focuses on distributive justice (fairness regarding outcomes like rewards, pay, etc) → Organisational justice theory suggests we also need to consider fairness regarding procedural aspects of the employment relationship to understand impact on employee motivation and performance → Employee relations practices (e.g., employee involvement) may therefore be extremely important Equity Theory / Justice: Evaluation Support from research studies - Higher levels of perceived organisational justice leads to higher performance and citizenship behaviour - Lower levels leads to counterproductive behaviour - Meta-analysis of 183 studies by Colquitt et al. (2001) Perceived inequity is highly stressful and detrimental Is all based on perceptions; people may perceive the same inputs/outputs differently Expectancy Theory Theory Main drivers of motivation and performance Expectancy Valued rewards and a clear link between effort put in and attainment of those rewards ⚫ Vroom (1964) ⚫ Motivation is understood in the form of a mathematical equation ⚫ People are motivated to work when they can see a clear effortreward link between the effort they put in and getting rewards they want Expectancy theory propositions 1. Motivational force (MF) = V x I x E 1. Valence (V): employees’ feelings about job outcomes, usually defined in terms of attractiveness -10 to 10; 0 = indifference 2. Instrumentality (I): perceived relationship between performance and attainment of each outcome 0 = no relationship, 1 = strongest possible relationship 3. Expectancy (E): is the perceived relationship between effort and performance 0 = no relationship, 1 = strongest possible relationship Expectancy theory model Motivation = V x I x E E = Expectancy I = Instrumentality V = Valence Expectancy theory: Implications Increasing desired outcomes is one way to increase motivation Desired outcomes will depend on the individual employee (some people want more pay; others want recognition) BUT employees must also see a clear link between the effort they put into their work and desired outcomes Management can support the effort-performance link through training and resources The performance-reward link can be strengthened through performance-related pay or appraisals Expectancy theory: Evaluation Some empirical support that V, I and E are important contributors to motivation Van Eerde & Thierry (1996) meta-analysis of 77 studies Behaviour is predicted by adding the three components V, I, and E and by multiplying them Theory better at predicting individual’s motivation towards different tasks than motivation levels of different people (Kennedy et al., 1983) Very complicated! Do we really make decisions in this way? 10 Minute Break Goal setting theory Theory Main drivers of motivation and performance Goal-setting Goals about our performance Locke and Latham (1990) Goals are targets that a person is trying to attain People are motivated to work by the goals they set about their performance Goal Setting Theory: Propositions 1. More difficult goals lead to higher levels of job performance, as they engender more commitment → But goals must be achievable 2. Goals can vary in specificity →The more specific the goal, the more concentrated the person’s effort and the more directed the behaviour 3. Important for person to receive feedback about task performance 4. Participation in goal-setting is also important →More commitment to achieving the goal Goal Setting Theory: Application Goal Setting Theory: Evaluation Substantial empirical support for basic principles (e.g., Locke, 1996; Locke & Latham, 1990) - BUT support mainly from student samples (Yearta et al., 1995) Very practical theory - 79% British organisations use some form of goal striving (Institute of Personnel Management) Some questions unanswered, e.g., how do we cope with multiple goals? Are there any individual differences in goal motivation? The dark side of goal theory Goals may encourage people to use unethical methods to achieve them, or to misrepresent performance (Barsky, 2008) ▪ Focuses attention on achievement rather than process ▪ Draws attention away from morality of behaviour ▪ Can help people to justify unethical behaviour (“it’s for the good of the organisation”) or displace responsibility (“my manager told me to”) Summary so far… Theory Main drivers of motivation and performance Hierarchy of needs Intrinsic, unfulfilled needs Equity (Un)Fairness in inputs and outcomes Expectancy Valued rewards and a clear link between effort put in and attainment of those rewards Goal-setting Goals about our performance ‘New faces’: Recent research ‘New faces’ of work motivation 1. Self-determination 2. Prosocial motivation Self-determination theory Theory Main drivers of motivation and performance Selfdetermination Genuine interest, identifying with and internalising the values of your work Deci and Ryan (2008) Universal psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness People are motivated by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors People are motivated at work by acting in a self-determined manner Self-Determination Theory (SDT): Propositions Intrinsically Motivated Work Behaviour: Extrinsically Motivated Work Behaviour: behaviour that is performed for its own sake behaviour that is performed to acquire material or social rewards or to avoid punishment No apparent reward is received except the activity itself. This type of motivation is short-lasting and only persists as long as the reward is provided Self-Determination Theory Glucksberg (1962) Self-Determination Theory (SDT): Propositions How do incentives relate to performance? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hh4fi5oJlnM Self-Determination Theory Glucksberg (1962) Self-Determination Theory (SDT) Empirical evidence shows that: Intrinsic motivation leads to positive outcomes - Creativity, positive well-being, performance Extrinsic motivation leads to people taking shortcuts - Find quickest way to meet goal – even if it is not the best - Can lead to unethical behaviour ! Self-Determination Theory (SDT): Implications So how can organisations increase levels of intrinsic motivation? → SDT also suggests that we all have basic needs for relatedness, autonomy and competence → The more a job meets these needs the more intrinsically motivating we will find it Self-Determination Theory (SDT) Meaningful jobs are more motivating Experiments by Ariely et al. 2008 Job Characteristics: Implications Google – 20% time Half of new products from this time (Gmail, Gnews) Self-determination theory evaluation Strong evidence (e.g., Gagne & Deci, 2005) and the theory has been widely taken up by researchers Used to understand motivation in relation to leadership styles and outside of the work context Provides a strong theoretical perspective Criticised for being too “western” Overemphasising individual over social or group motivations Prosocial motivation theory Cropanzano, Goldman, & Folger (2005) Prosocial motivation theory Grant (2007) Prosocial motivation theory: Idea that people are not motivated purely by self interest People are motivated at work by helping others Prosocial motivation theory: Propositions Prosocial motivation is the motivation to make a positive difference for others People in many types of jobs put selves out for others Desire to help others may motivate choice of job People may even sacrifice basic ‘needs’ like pay and physical security Prosocial motivation theory: Evidence Experimental Example by Grant (2011) Hand Washing Experiment - Hand hygiene prevents you from catching diseases - Hand hygiene prevents patients from catching diseases Prosocial motivation theory: Implications To promote motivation, design jobs that have: Opportunities to benefit others - This will make people feel that they are making a difference - E.g., Corporate Social Responsibility policies Contact with beneficiaries - This will make people care more about making a difference Prosocial motivation theory: Application Provides a different, less egocentric view of motivation Strong evidence for the theory - Grant & Hofmann (2011) study of hand hygiene in hospitals - Grant (2008) studies show that prosocial motivation causes firefighters to work more overtime hours, and fundraising callers to make more calls and make more money BUT: Is everyone motivated prosocially? - People might self-select into prosocial jobs - Are those in other jobs so bothered about helping others? What motivates you? Menti.com 18 12 27 7 Challenges for theories of motivation Individual differences: Do people differ in what motivates them? Culture: Do theories apply to different cultural backgrounds? Research focused on US populations Teamworking: Are teams motivated in the same way as individuals? Quiz You are managing a worker whose performance has been deteriorating over the last few months. During her yearly appraisal, you ask her what might be causing this change and she tells you that she found out that her coworker who has the same job position is earning a higher salary than her and this made her feel demotivated. Which theory of motivation best explains what is happening here? A. B. C. D. Self-determination Theory Hierarchy of Needs Theory Equity Theory Expectancy Theory Quiz Which of the following is a valid criticism of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory? A. The theory is too complicated B. The theory is only supported in non-western cultures C. The theory is too philosophical in nature D. The theory is too practical in nature Quiz You are managing a worker who works in a factory. The worker's job is to put cherries on the top of cakes as they come though the production line. Lately, the worker's performance has been slipping and they appear to lack motivation. Thinking that the low pay for the work might be responsible, you manage to negotiate a small pay rise for the worker, but are surprised to find that this doesn't improve the worker's performance. In fact, if anything, they have got slightly worse! Which of the following theories best explains what has happened? A. B. C. D. Hierarchy of Needs Theory Self-determination Theory Equity Theory Pro-social motivation theory Summary Theory How do we motivate employees to work hard? Hierarchy of needs Fulfill their needs Equity Ensure their rewards are fair Expectancy Valued rewards and a clear link between effort put in and attainment of those rewards Goal-setting Set them challenging, specific goals about performance SDT Provide an environment that encourages intrinsic motivation Prosocial motivation Give them opportunities to help others and to see the benefits they have made Preparation work for Seminar 1 Read this blog article: http://www.spring.org.uk/2009/05/social-loafingwhen-groups-are-bad-for-productivity.php And this journal article: Williams, K., Harkins, S. G., & Latané, B. (1981). Identifiability as a deterrant to social loafing: Two cheering experiments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40(2), 303-311.