Industrial/Organizational Psychology Finals Review PDF

Industrial/Organizational Psychology Finals Reviewer Chapter 9 Employee Motivation (10 items) Industrial psychologists generally define work MOTIVATION as the internal force that drives a worker to action as well as the external factors that encourage that ac...

Industrial/Organizational Psychology Finals Reviewer Chapter 9 Employee Motivation (10 items) Industrial psychologists generally define work MOTIVATION as the internal force that drives a worker to action as well as the external factors that encourage that action (Locke & Latham, 2002). Ability and skill determine whether a worker can do the job, but motivation determines whether the worker will do it properly. Self-esteem is the extent to which a person views himself as valuable and worthy. According to Korman’s Consistency theory, there is a positive correlation between self-esteem and performance. Consistency theory takes the relationship between self-esteem and motivation one step further by stating that employees with high self-esteem actually desire to perform at high levels and employees with low self-esteem desire to perform at low levels. THREE TYPES OF SELF-ESTEEM: 1. Chronic self-esteem is a person’s overall feeling about himself. 2. Situational self-esteem (also called self-efficacy) is a person’s feeling about himself in a particular situation such as operating a machine or talking to other people. 3. Socially influenced self-esteem is how a person feels about himself on the basis of the expectations of others. Self-fulfilling prophecy which states that an individual will perform as well or as poorly as he expects to perform. Galatea effect This relationship between self-expectations and performance. Pygmalion effect The idea here is that if an employee feels that a manager has confidence in him, his self-esteem will increase, as will his performance. Golem effect Occurs when negative expectations of an individual cause a decrease in that individual’s actual performance. INTRINSIC MOTIVATION When people are intrinsically motivated, they will seek to perform well because they either enjoy performing the actual tasks or enjoy the challenge of successfully completing the task. EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION When they are extrinsically motivated, they don’t particularly enjoy the tasks but are motivated to perform well to receive some type of reward or to avoid negative consequences. Individual orientations toward intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can be measured by the, Work Preference Inventory (WPI) The WPI yields scores on two dimensions of intrinsic motivation (enjoyment, challenge) and two dimensions of extrinsic motivation (compensation, outward orientation). Reviewer ni KY fighting! :> NEED OF ACHIEVEMENT Are motivated by jobs that are challenging and over which they have some control, whereas employees who have minimal achievement needs are more satisfied when jobs involve little challenge and have a high probability of success. NEED FOR AFFILIATION Are motivated by jobs in which they can work with and help other people. NEED FOR POWER Are motivated by a desire to influence others rather than simply to be successful. JOB CHARACTERISTICS THEORY Employees desire jobs that are meaningful, provide them with the opportunity to be personally responsible for the outcome of their work (autonomy), and provide them with feedback of the results of their efforts. MASLOW’S NEEDS HIERARCHY Maslow believed that employees would be motivated by and satisfied with their jobs at any given point in time if certain needs were met. Basic Biological Needs Maslow thought that an individual first seeks to satisfy basic biological needs for food, air, water, and shelter. In our case, an individual who does not have a job, is homeless, and is on the verge of starvation will be satisfied with any job as long as it provides for these basic needs. When asked how well they enjoy their job, people at this level might reply, “I can’t complain, it pays the bills.” Safety Needs After basic biological needs have been met, a job that merely provides food and shelter will no longer be satisfying. Employees then become concerned about meeting their safety needs. That is, they may work in an unsafe coal mine to earn enough money to ensure their family’s survival, but once their family has food and shelter, they will remain satisfied with their jobs only if the workplace is safe. Social Needs Once the first two need levels have been met, employees will remain motivated by their jobs only when their social needs have been met. Social needs involve working with others, developing friendships, and feeling needed. Organizations attempt to satisfy their employees’ social needs in a variety of ways. Ego Needs When social needs have been satisfied, employees concentrate next on meeting their ego needs. These are needs for recognition and success, and an organization can help to satisfy them through praise, awards, promotions, salary increases, publicity, and many other ways. Self-Actualization Needs Even when employees have friends, have earned awards, and are making a relatively high salary, they may not be completely motivated by their jobs because their self-actualization needs may not have been satisfied yet. Reviewer ni KY fighting! :> ERG THEORY Existence, Relatedness, Growth TWO-FACTOR THEORY believed that job-related factors could be divided into two categories—hygiene factors and motivators—thus the name two-factor theory. Hygiene factors are those job-related elements that result from but do not involve the job itself. For example, pay and benefits are consequences of work but do not involve the work itself. Similarly, making new friends may result from going to work, but it is also not directly involved with the tasks and duties of the job. Motivators are job elements that do concern actual tasks and duties. Examples of motivators would be the level of responsibility, the amount of job control, and the interest that the work holds for the employee. GOAL SETTING Each employee is given a goal such as increasing attendance, selling more products, or reducing the number of grammar errors in reports. SELF-REGULATION THEORY Employees monitor their own progress toward attaining goals and then make the necessary adjustments; that is, they self-regulate. For example, suppose that an employee has a goal of completing a -page report in two weeks. If there are ten working days in the two-week period, the employee might determine that she should complete ten pages a day. PREMACK PRINCIPLE Which states that reinforcement is relative and that a supervisor can reinforce an employee with something that on the surface does not appear to be a reinforcer. The best way to explain this principle is to construct a reinforcement hierarchy on which an employee lists his preferences for a variety of reinforcers. Social Recognition Social recognition consists of personal attention, signs of approval (e.g., smiles, head nods), and expressions of appreciation. INDIVIDUAL INCENTIVE PLANS Pay for Performance Also called earnings-at-risk (EAR) plans, pay-for-performance plans pay employees according to how much they individually produce. Merit Pay Merit pay systems base their incentives on performance appraisal scores rather than on such objective performance measures as sales and productivity. Reviewer ni KY fighting! :> GROUP INCENTIVE PLANS Profit Sharing profit-sharing programs provide employees with a percentage of profits above a certain amount. Gain Sharing gainsharing ties groupwide financial incentives to improvements (gains) in organizational performance. Stock Options With stock options, employees are given the opportunity to purchase stock in the future, typically at the market price on the day the options were granted. EXPECTANCY THEORY Expectancy (E): The perceived relationship between the amount of effort an employee puts in and the resulting outcome. Instrumentality (I): The extent to which the outcome of a worker’s performance, if noticed, results in a particular consequence. Valence (V): The extent to which an employee values a particular consequence. Motivation = E (I × V) EQUITY THEORY is based on the premise that our levels of motivation and job satisfaction are related to how fairly we believe we are treated in comparison with others. Inputs Are those personal elements that we put into our jobs. Obvious elements are time, effort, education, and experience. Less obvious elements include money spent on child care and distance driven to work. Outputs Are those elements that we receive from our jobs. A list of obvious outputs includes pay, benefits, challenge, and responsibility. Less obvious outputs are benefits such as friends and office furnishings. —————————————————————————————————————————— Chapter 10 Employee Satisfaction and Commitment (10 items) JOB SATISFACTION The attitude an employee has toward her job. ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT The extent to which an employee identifies with and is involved with an organization. Three motivational facets to organizational commitments: Affective commitment is the extent to which an employee wants to remain with the organization, cares about the organization, and is willing to exert effort on its behalf. Remain because they want to. Reviewer ni KY fighting! :> Continuance commitment is the extent to which an employee believes she must remain with the organization due to the time, expense, and effort that she has already put into it or the difficulty she would have in finding another job. Remain because they already put in too much. Normative commitment is the extent to which an employee feels obligated to the organization and, as a result of this obligation, must remain with the organization. Remain because of obligation. SOCIAL INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY also called social learning theory postulates that employees observe the levels of motivation and satisfaction of other employees and then model those levels. EQUITY THEORY Distributive justice is the perceived fairness of the actual decisions made in an organization. Procedural justice is the perceived fairness of the methods used to arrive at the decision, Interactional justice is the perceived fairness of the interpersonal treatment employees receive. Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) to measure the extent to which these characteristics are present in a given job. Quality circles, employees meet as a group to discuss and make recommendations about work issues. Faces Scale Although the scale is easy to use, it is no longer commonly administered partly because it lacks sufficient detail, lacks construct validity, and because some employees believe it is so simple that it is demeaning. Uses faces or emojis to determine levels of satisfaction. Job Descriptive Index (JDI) The most commonly used scale today is the the JDI, consists of a series of job-related adjectives and statements that are rated by employees. The scales yield scores on five dimensions of job satisfaction: supervision, pay, promotional opportunities, coworkers, and the work itself. Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) The MSQ contains items that yield scores on scales. To get experience taking a satisfaction inventory, complete the short form of the MSQ Job in General (JIG) Scale The JIG is useful when an organization wants to measure the overall level of job satisfaction rather than specific aspects. Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) A 15-item questionnaire to measure three commitment factors: acceptance of the organization’s values and goals, willingness to work to help the organization, and a desire to remain with the organization. Reviewer ni KY fighting! :> Organizational Commitment Scale (OCS) A nine-item survey that measures three aspects of commitment: identification, exchange, and affiliation. Consequences of Dissatisfaction and Other Negative Work Attitudes Absenteeism When employees are dissatisfied or not committed to the organization, they are more likely to miss employee satisfaction and commitment work and leave their jobs than satisfied or committed employees. Rewards for Attending Attendance can be increased through the use of financial incentives, time off, and recognition programs. Financial Incentives Financial incentive programs use money to reward employees for achieving certain levels of attendance. One of these programs, well pay, involves paying employees for their unused sick leave. Financial bonus to employees who attain a certain level of attendance. With this method, an employee with perfect attendance over a year might receive a $1000 bonus, and an employee who misses ten days might receive nothing. Games to reward employees who attend work. There are many examples. One company used poker as its game, giving a playing card each day to employees who attended. Paid time off program (PTO) or paid-leave bank (PLB) With this style of program, vacation, personal, holiday, and sick days are combined into one category—paid time off. Recognition Programs One other way that we can make work attendance more rewarding is through recognition and praise. Formal recognition programs provide employees with perfect-attendance certificates, coffee mugs, plaques, lapel pins, watches, and so forth. Turnover is a problem because the cost of losing an employee is estimated at 1.5 times the employee’s salary. —————————————————————————————————————————— Chapter 11 Organizational Communication (10 items) Types of Organizational Communication: UPWARD COMMUNICATION is communication of subordinates to superiors or of employees to managers. SERIAL COMMUNICATION, the message is relayed from an employee to her supervisor, who relays it to her supervisor, who, in turn, relays it to her supervisor, and so on until the message reaches the top. Reviewer ni KY fighting! :> MUM (minimize unpleasant messages) effect is the reluctance to relay bad news. Attitude surveys are usually conducted annually by an outside consultant who administers a questionnaire asking employees to rate their opinions on such factors as satisfaction with pay, working conditions, and supervisors. 1-800-numbers or suggestion or complaints boxes Theoretically, these two boxes should be the same, but a box asking for suggestions is not as likely to get complaints as a box specifically labeled complaints and vice versa. Third-Party Facilitators The use of a third party such as a liaison or an ombudsperson is another method that can increase upward communication. Both are responsible for taking employee complaints and suggestions and personally working with management to find solutions. DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION is that of superior to subordinate or management to employees. Bulletin Boards The next time you visit an organization, look around for bulletin boards. You will see them everywhere. Their main use, however, is to communicate non-work–related opportunities such as scholarships, optional meetings, and items for sale. Important information is seldom seen because the bulletin board is not the appropriate place to post a change of policy or procedure. Policy Manuals The policy manual is the place for posting important changes in policy or procedure. This manual contains all the rules under which employees must operate. Most manuals are written in highly technical language, although they should be written in a less technical style to encourage employees to read them, as well as to make them easier to understand. Newsletters Are designed to bolster employee morale by discussing happy or innocuous events such as the three B’s (babies, birthdays, and ballgame scores). Newsletters are good sources of information for celebrating employee successes, providing feedback on how well the organization is doing, introducing a new employee, and providing reminders about organizational changes. Intranets To replace bulletin boards, newsletters, and company manuals, an increasing number of organizations are turning to intranets—organization-wide versions of the Internet. BUSINESS COMMUNICATION is the transmission of business-related information among employees, management, and customers. Business communication methods include memos, telephone calls, and email and voicemail. Memos One of the most common methods of business communication is the memorandum, or memo. Memos have the advantage of providing detailed information to a large number of people in a short period of time. Reviewer ni KY fighting! :> Telephone Calls In the past, this method was appropriate only when the message was short and when only a few people needed to receive the communication. Email and Voicemail Many memos and telephone calls have been replaced with email and voicemail (sophisticated phone-answering systems). Voice mail and email are used primarily to exchange general and/or timely information and ask questions; they are not meant as substitutes for important conversation. INFORMAL COMMUNICATION Grapevine is a term that can be traced back to the Civil War, when loosely hung telegraph wires resembled grapevines. The communication across these lines was often distorted. In the Single-strand grapevine, Jones passes a message to Smith, who passes the message to Brown, and so on until the message is received by everyone or someone “breaks the chain.” This pattern is similar to the children’s game of “telephone.” In the gossip grapevine, Jones passes the message to only a select group of people. Notice that with this pattern only one person passes the message along, and not everyone has a chance to receive, or will receive, it. In the probability grapevine, Jones tells the message to a few other employees, and they in turn randomly pass the message along to other employees. In the cluster grapevine, Jones tells only a few select employees, who in turn tell a few select others. Isolates were employees who received less than half of the information, liaisons were employees who both received most of the information and passed it on to others, and dead-enders were those who heard most of the information but seldom passed it on to other employees. Gossip is primarily about individuals and the content of the message lacks significance to the people gossiping. Rumor, however, contains information that is significant to the lives of those communicating the message, and can be about individuals or other topics Reviewer ni KY fighting! :> INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION involves the exchange of a message across a communication channel from one person to another. Nonverbal Cues Much of what we communicate is conveyed by nonverbal means. Our words often say one thing, but our actions say another. Body Language How we move and position our body—our body language—communicates much to other people. Use of Space The ways people make use of space also provides nonverbal cues about their feelings and personality. The intimacy zone extends from physical contact to inches away from a person and is usually reserved for close relationships such as dates, spouses, and family. The personal distance zone ranges from inches to feet away from a person and is the distance usually reserved for friends and acquaintances. The social distance zone is from to feet away and is the distance typically observed when dealing with businesspeople and strangers. The public distance zone ranges from to feet away and is characteristic of such large group interactions as lectures and seminars. Use of Time The way people make use of time is another element of nonverbal communication. Paralanguage involves the way we say things and consists of variables such as tone, tempo, volume, number and duration of pauses, and rate of speech. A message that is spoken quickly will be perceived differently from one that is spoken slowly. Artifacts A final element of nonverbal communication concerns the objects, or artifacts, that a person wears or with which she surrounds herself. An open desk arrangement faces a desk against a wall so that a visitor can sit next to the person who sits behind the desk. A closed desk arrangement places a desk so that a visitor must sit across from the person behind the desk. STYLES OF LISTENING: the Attitudinal Listening Profile, to measure an employee’s listening style. Their theory postulates six main styles of listening: leisure, inclusive, stylistic, technical, empathic, and nonconforming (LISTEN). Leisure listening is practiced by “good-time” people who listen only for words that indicate pleasure. For example, a student who is a leisure listener will pay attention only when the teacher is interesting and tells jokes. Reviewer ni KY fighting! :> Stylistic listening is practiced by the person who listens to the way the communication is presented. Stylistic listeners will not listen unless the speaker’s style is appropriate, the speaker “looks the part,” or both. Technical listening is the style practiced by the “Jack Webbs” of the listening world—those who want “just the facts, ma’am.” The technical listener hears and retains large amounts of detail, but she does not hear the meaning of those details. Empathic listening tunes into the feelings of the speaker and, of the six listening types, is the most likely to pay attention to nonverbal cues. Thus, an empathic listener will listen to an employee complain about her boss and is the only one of the six types of listeners who will not only pay attention but also understand that the employee’s complaints indicate true frustration and unhappiness. Nonconforming listening is practiced by the individual who attends only to information that is consistent with her way of thinking. If the nonconforming listener does not agree with a speaker, she will not listen to what the speaker says. Furthermore, the nonconforming listener will pay attention only to those people she considers to be strong or to have authority. Will only listen to those they like. —————————————————————————————————————————— Chapter 12 Leadership (5 items) LEADER EMERGENCE Leader emergence is the idea that people who become leaders possess traits or characteristics different from people who do not become leaders. LEADER PERFORMANCE In contrast to leader emergence, which deals with the likelihood that a person will become a leader, leader performance involves the idea that leaders who perform well possess certain characteristics that poorly performing leaders do not. Needs for power, achievement, and affiliation can be measured through various psychological tests. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) The TAT is a projective test in which a person is shown a series of pictures and asked to tell a story about what is happening in each. Job Choice Exercise (JCE) With the JCE, the person reads descriptions of jobs that involve varying degrees of power, achievement, and affiliation needs and rates how desirable he finds each particular job. Leadership Opinion Questionnaire (LOQ) The LOQ is filled out by supervisors or leaders who want to know their own behavioral style. Reviewer ni KY fighting! :> Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) The LBDQ is completed by subordinates to provide a picture of how they perceive their leader’s behavior. Fiedler’s contingency model holds that any individual’s leadership style is effective only in certain situations. IMPACT THEORY was developed by Geier, Downey, and Johnson, who believed that each leader has one of six behavioral styles: informational, magnetic, position, affiliation, coercive, or tactical. Each style is effective only in particular situations or what the researchers call an organizational climate. Informational style provides information in a climate of ignorance, where important information is missing from the group. Magnetic style leads through energy and optimism and is effective only in a climate of despair, which is characterized by low morale. Position style leads by virtue of the power inherent in that position. Such a person might lead through statements like “As your captain, I am ordering you to do it” or “Because I am your mother—that’s why.” Individuals who use a position style will be effective only in climates of instability. Affiliation style leads by liking and caring about others. This style is similar to that of the person-oriented leader discussed previously. A leader using affiliation will be most effective in a climate of anxiety or when worry predominates. Coercive style leads by controlling reward and punishment and is most effective in a climate of crisis. Such a leader will often use statements such as “Do it or you’re fired” or “If you can get the package there on time, I will have a little something for you.” Tactical style leads through the use of strategy and is most effective in a climate of disorganization. A good example is a class that breaks into small groups to complete an assignment. PATH-GOAL THEORY a leader can adopt one of four behavioral leadership styles to handle each situation: instrumental, supportive, participative, or achievement-oriented. Instrumental style - calls for planning, organizing, and controlling the activities of employees. Supportive-style - leader shows concern for employees. Participative-style - leader shares information with employees and lets them participate in decision making. Achievement-oriented style - sets challenging goals and rewards increases in performance. Reviewer ni KY fighting! :> Transformational leadership focuses on changing or transforming the goals, values, ethics, standards, and performance of others. Transformational leaders are often labeled as being “visionary,” “charismatic,” and “inspirational.” —————————————————————————————————————————— Chapter 13 Group Behavior, Teams, and Conflict (5 items) GROUP two or more people who perceive themselves as a group and interact in some way. The definition used by Gordon (2001), who believes that for a collection of people to be called a group, the following four criteria must be met: (a) The members of the group must see themselves as a unit; (b) the group must provide rewards to its members; (c) anything that happens to one member of the group affects every other member; and (d) the members of the group must share a common goal. To be considered a group, these two or more people must also see themselves as a unit. The first criterion is that the group must have multiple members. The second group criterion is that membership must be rewarding for each individual in the group. The third group criterion is that an event that affects one group member should affect all group members. (corresponding effects) The fourth and final criterion is that all members must have a common goal. GROUP COHESIVENESS the extent to which group members like and trust one another, are committed to accomplishing a team goal, and share a feeling of group pride. Groups are most cohesive and perform best when group size is small. GROUP HOMOGENEITY The homogeneity of a group is the extent to which its members are similar. A homogeneous group contains members who are similar in some or most ways. A heterogeneous group contains members who are more different than alike. Additive tasks are those for which the group’s performance is equal to the sum of the performances by each group member. Conjunctive tasks are those for which the group’s performance depends on the least effective group member (a chain is only as strong as its weakest link). Disjunctive tasks are those for which the group’s performance is based on the most talented group member. Reviewer ni KY fighting! :> GROUP ROLES Task-oriented roles involve behaviors such as offering new ideas, coordinating activities, and finding new information. Social-oriented roles involve encouraging cohesiveness and participation. Individual role includes blocking group activities, calling attention to oneself, and avoiding group interaction. Individual roles seldom result in higher group productivity. PRESENCE OF OTHERS Social facilitation involves the positive effects of the presence of others on an individual’s behavior. Social inhibition involves the negative effects of others’ presence. Social facilitation and social inhibition can be further delineated by audience effects and coaction Audience Effects The phenomenon of audience effects takes place when a group of people passively watch an individual. An example would be a sporting event held in an arena. Coaction The effect on behavior when two or more people are performing the same task in the presence of one another. The second explanation states that a coacting audience provides a means for comparison. Evaluation apprehension hypothesizes that judgment by others causes the differential effects of social facilitation. Social Loafing Decreases in performance when others are present and either watching the individual or working with her, the social loafing theory considers the effect on individual performance when people work together on a task. GROUPTHINK The term groupthink was coined by Irving Janis (1972) after studying the disastrous Bay of Pigs invasion of 1961. With groupthink, members become so cohesive and like-minded that they make poor decisions despite contrary information that might reasonably lead them to other options. Finally, one group member can be assigned the job of devil’s advocate—one who questions and disagrees with the group. NOMINAL GROUP When several people individually work on a problem but do not interact. Reviewer ni KY fighting! :> INTERACTING GROUP When several individuals interact to solve a problem. TYPES OF TEAMS Work teams consist of groups of employees who manage themselves, assign jobs, plan and schedule work, make work-related decisions, and solve work-related problems. Parallel teams also called cross-functional teams, consist of representatives from various departments (functions) within an organization. Project teams are formed to produce one-time outputs such as creating a new product, installing a new software system, or hiring a new employee. Once the team’s goal has been accomplished, the team is dismantled. Management teams coordinate, manage, advise, and direct employees and teams. Management teams are responsible for providing general direction and assistance to those teams. GROUP CONFLICT CONFLICT is the psychological and behavioral reaction to a perception that another person is either keeping you from reaching a goal, taking away your right to behave in a particular way, or violating the expectancies of a relationship. Dysfunctional conflict keeps people from working together, lessens productivity, spreads to other areas, and increases turnover. Functional conflict moderate levels of conflict can stimulate new ideas, increase friendly competition, and increase team effectiveness TYPES OF CONFLICT Interpersonal conflict occurs between two individuals. In the workplace, interpersonal conflict might occur between two coworkers, a supervisor and a subordinate, an employee and a customer, or an employee and a vendor. Individual–Group Conflict can occur between an individual and a group just as easily as between two individuals. Individual–group conflict usually occurs when the individual’s needs are different from the group’s needs, goals, or norms. Group–Group Conflict The third type of conflict occurs between two or more groups. In academia, such group–group conflict occurs annually as departments fight for budget allocations and space. Reviewer ni KY fighting! :> CONFLICT STYLES Avoiding Style Employees using an avoiding style choose to ignore the conflict and hope it will resolve itself. An interesting form of avoidance, called triangling, occurs when an employee discusses the conflict with a third party, such as a friend or supervisor. Accommodating Style When a person is so intent on settling a conflict that he gives in and risks hurting himself, he has adopted the accommodating style. People who use this style when the stakes are high are usually viewed as cooperative but weak. Forcing Style A person with a forcing style handles conflict in a win-lose fashion and does what it takes to win, with little regard for the other person. This strategy of winning at all costs occurs especially when a person regards his side as correct and the other person is regarded as the enemy whose side is incorrect. Collaborating Style An individual with a collaborating style wants to win but also wants to see the other person win. These people seek win-win solutions—that is, ways in which both sides get what they want. Compromising Style The user of this type adopts give-and-take tactics that enable each side to get some of what it wants but not everything it wants. Compromising usually involves a good deal of negotiation and bargaining. Mediation With mediation, a neutral third party is asked to help both parties reach a mutually agreeable solution to the conflict. Mediators are not there to make decisions. Arbitration With arbitration, a neutral third party listens to both sides’ arguments and then makes a decision. Within an organization, this neutral party is often the manager of the two employees in conflict. —————————————————————————————————————————— Chapter 14 Organization Development (5 items) SACRED COW HUNTS The first step toward organizational change. Organizational sacred cows are practices that have been around for a long time and invisibly reduce productivity. A sacred cow hunt, then, is an organization-wide attempt to get rid of practices that serve no useful purpose. The Paper Cow Paper cows are unnecessary paperwork—usually forms and reports that cost organizations money to prepare, distribute, and read. The Meeting Cow Another area ripe for change is the number and length of meetings. Think about meetings you have attended recently. Reviewer ni KY fighting! :> The Speed Cow Unnecessary deadlines are another source for potential change. Requiring work tobe done “by tomorrow” is sometimes necessary. EMPLOYEE ACCEPTANCE OF CHANGE STAGES Stage 1: Denial During this initial stage, employees deny that any changes will actually take place, try to convince themselves that the old way is working, and create reasons why the proposed changes will never work (e.g., “We tried that before and it didn’t work. Something like that won’t work in a company like ours”). Stage 2: Defense When employees begin to believe that change will actually occur, they become defensive and try to justify their positions and ways of doing things. The idea here is that if an organization is changing the way in which employees perform, there is an inherent criticism that the employees must have previously been doing things wrong. Stage 3: Discarding At some point, employees begin to realize not only that the organization is going to change but that the employees are going to have to change as well. That is, change is inevitable, and it is in the best interest of the employee to discard the old ways and start to accept the change as the new reality. Stage 4: Adaptation At this stage, employees test the new system, learn how it functions, and begin to make adjustments in the way they perform. Employees spend tremendous energy at this stage and can often become frustrated and angry. Stage 5: Internalization In this final stage, employees have become immersed in the new culture, become comfortable with the new system, and accepted their new coworkers and work environment. TYPE OF CHANGES Evolutionary Change The vast majority of change is evolutionary, that is the continual process of upgrading or improving processes; for example, the dreaded change from Windows XP to Vista, a change in the supervisor to whom one reports, or a change in how to submit travel receipts for reimbursement. Revolutionary Change Burke defines revolutionary change as a “real jolt to the system” that drastically changes the way things are done. Examples might include developing a brand new product line that requires a vastly different skill set, completely changing the organizational structure, or organizational misconduct that causes an organization to completely change its ethical policies and behavior. Clearly, revolutionary change is more difficult than is evolutionary change. Change Agents are people who enjoy change and often make changes just for the sake of it. A change agent’s motto might best be expressed as “If it ain’t broke, break it.” Reviewer ni KY fighting! :> Change Analysts are not afraid to change or make changes but want to make changes only if the changes will improve the organization. Their motto might be “If it ain’t broke, leave it alone; if it’s broke, fix it.” Change analysts are people who constantly ask such questions as “Why are we doing this?” and “Is there a better way we could be doing this?” But in contrast to the change agent, they are not driven by a need to change constantly. Receptive Changers are people who probably will not instigate change but are willing to change. Their motto is “If it’s broken, I’ll help fix it.” Receptive changers typically have high self-esteem and optimistic personalities and believe they have control over their own lives. Receptive changers are essential for any major organizational change to be successful. Reluctant Changers will certainly not instigate or welcome change, but they will change if necessary. Their motto is “Are you sure it’s broken?” Change Resisters hate change, are scared by it, and will do anything they can to keep change from occurring. Their motto is “It may be broken, but it’s still better than the unknown.” Rituals Procedures in which employees participate to become “one of the gang.” Activities such as annual awards, banquets, or staff picnics are rituals that reinforce the impression of a “caring” organization. Symbols communication tools that convey certain messages to employees. Decision-Making Strategies Using the Vroom-Yetton Model: Autocratic I strategy leaders use the available information to make the decision without consulting their subordinates. This is an effective strategy when the leader has the necessary information and when acceptance by the group either is not important or is likely to occur regardless of the decision. Autocratic II strategy leaders obtain the necessary information from their subordinates and then make their own decisions. The leader may or may not tell the subordinates about the nature of the problem. The purpose of this strategy is for leaders to obtain information they need to make a decision even though acceptance of the solution by the group is not important. Consultative I strategy share the problem on an individual basis with some or all of their subordinates. After receiving their input, the leader makes a decision that may or may not be consistent with the thinking of the group. This strategy is especially useful in situations in which it is important for the group to accept the decision but in which the group members may not agree regarding the best decision. Consultative II strategy share the problems with their subordinates as a group. After receiving the group’s input, the leader makes a decision that may or may not be acceptable to the group. The main difference Reviewer ni KY fighting! :> between this strategy and the Consultative I strategy is that with Consultative II the entire group is involved, whereas in Consultative I only a few employees are asked to provide input. This strategy is used when acceptance of the decision by the group is important and when the individual group members are likely to agree with one another about the best solution. Group I strategy The leader shares the problem with the group and lets the group reach a solution. The role of the leader is merely to assist in the decision-making process. This strategy is effective when group acceptance of the decision is important and when the group can be trusted to arrive at a decision that is consistent with the goals of the organization. DOWNSIZING When organizations restructure, the result is often a decrease in the size of their workforce. Temporary employees (temps) Typically, these temps are hired through temporary employment agencies such as Kelly, Olsten, Bright Services, or Manpower. Outsourcing Company using outside vendors to provide services previously performed internally. COMPRESSED WORKWEEKS Although the vast majority of people still work eight hours a day, five days a week, there is a trend toward working fewer days a week but more hours per day. These deviations from the typical five-day workweek are called compressed workweeks. MOONLIGHTING The same concern applies to employees working more than one job, or moonlighting. For example, an employee might work the day shift as a machine operator for Ford Motor Company and then work the night shift as a store clerk for a 7-Eleven convenience store. BANDWIDTH is the total number of potential hours available for work each day. For example, employees can work their eight hours anytime in the -hour band- width between a.m. and p.m. CORE HOURS are those that everyone must work and typically consist of the hours during which an organization is busiest with its outside contacts. FLEXIBLE HOURS are those that remain in the bandwidth and in which the employee has a choice of working. GLIDING TIME is the most flexible of these schedules. With this system, an employee can choose her own hours without advance notice or scheduling. FLEXITOUR or modified flexitour is categorized as the most flexible working schedules, with the employee enjoying greater flexibility in working hours, although the hours must be scheduled in advance. PEAK-PAY TIME With peak-time pay, certain employees are encouraged to work only part time but are paid at a higher hourly rate for those hours than employees who work full time. Thus, an employee will make more per hour than her full-time counterpart, although she will make less money per day. Reviewer ni KY fighting! :> JOB SHARING is offered by 19% of organizations (Burke, a) and involves two employees who share their work hours. Rather than one person working hours each week, two employees combine their hours so that they total. TELECOMMUTING With telecommuting, however, an employee uses a computer to electronically interact with a central office. Other terms commonly used for telecommuting are telework and mobile working. Telecommuting is ideal for such tasks as computer programming, data entry, and telemarketing. These negative effects are thought to occur because of disruptions in CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS, the 24-hour cycles of physiological functions maintained by every person. (body clock) FIXED SHIFTS With fixed shifts, separate groups of employees permanently work the day shift, swing shift, and night shift. ROTATING SHIFTS Rotating shifts are those in which an employee rotates through all three shifts, working the day shift for a while, then switching to the swing shift, then working the night shift, and so on. —————————————————————————————————————————— Chapter 15 Stress Management: Dealing with the Demands of Life and Work (5 items) STRESS The psychological and physical reaction to certain life events or situations. The stress process begins with life events or situations that cause stress. STRESSORS These life events are called stressors and include such things as weddings, job interviews, dentist appointments, basketball games, deadlines, and traffic jams. This is the cause of what stresses us. STRESS REACTIVITY If we perceive these events as being stressful, our bodies respond in many ways, including elevated blood pressure, increased heart rate, muscle tension, and perspiration. STRAINS If these physical reactions occur for periods longer than our body can tolerate, negative physical and psychological consequences can occur. EUSTRESS (from the root eu-, meaning something that is proper) occurs when stressors result in feelings of challenge or achievement—the feelings of stress get converted into positive energy and actually become motivating. DISTRESS Bad or negative stress, known as distress, happens when there is too much stress and when nothing is done to eliminate, reduce, or counteract its effects. Reviewer ni KY fighting! :> STRESS PERSONALITIES Type A Personalities Do you, or does someone you know, talk and walk fast, get impatient easily, and always seem to be in a hurry? Chances are you or the person you know has a Type A personality. Type A individuals are characterized mainly by achievement striving, impatience and time urgency, and anger and hostility. They tend to do many things at one time (called multitasking). Type B Personalities These individuals seem to be more laid-back. That is, when a potentially stress-producing event occurs, they are better able to keep it in perspective and use more positive ways to deal with it. They are more relaxed and more agreeable. Neuroticism Neurotics are anxious, often depressed, and pessimistic and lack hope. They are more likely to perceive events as being stressful and more likely to have negative reactions to stressful events than are people who are more emotionally stable. SOURCES OF STRESS Personal Stressors Personal sources of stress deal with such non-work issues as family and intimate relationships, marriage, divorce, health issues, financial problems, and raising children. Occupational Stressors Individuals who have been on their own and in the workforce full time seem preoccupied with the stress that work brings. Occupational stressors can be grouped under two broad categories: job characteristics and organizational characteristics JOB CHARACTERISTICS Role Conflict occurs when our work expectations and what we think we should be doing don’t match up with the work we actually have to do. Role Ambiguity occurs when an individual’s job duties and performance expectations are not clearly defined. Role Overload develops when individuals either feel they lack the skills or workplace resources to complete a task or perceive that the task cannot be done in the required amount of time. ORGANIZATIONAL STRESSORS Person–Organization Fit The term person/organization fit refers to how well such factors as your skills, knowledge, abilities, expectations, personality, values, and attitudes match those of the organization. OTHER SOURCES OF STRESS Minor Frustration Minor frustration is stress we encounter in our daily lives, and it might include irritations such as waiting in traffic or not being able to get some information from the library. Minor frustrations may try our patience, but in and of themselves they may not be a problem and usually last for only a short duration, such as an hour or a few hours. Reviewer ni KY fighting! :>  Perspective taking means rating the frustration on a scale of 1–10, with 10 meaning the situation is worthy of high levels of irritation. Forecasting The stress from forecasting develops from our constantly worrying about the future and wasting time and energy on “what ifs?” This continuous fretting about things over which we may have no control or that may never even happen can become very emotionally and physically draining, not to mention debilitating. Residual Stress Residual stress is stress that is carried over from previous stressful situations that we refuse to “let go.” BURNOUT, the state of being overwhelmed by stress, is usually experienced by highly motivated professionals faced with high work demands. Reviewer ni KY fighting! :>