Work Motivation 2 PDF

(Work) Motivation 2 The Hawthorne experiments marked a paradigm shift in organizational research. - - - Starting points: Various experiments in the Hawthorne plants of the Western Electric Company under the direction of Elton Mayo Experiment 1: Verification of the relationship between illuminance...

(Work) Motivation 2 The Hawthorne experiments marked a paradigm shift in organizational research. - - - Starting points: Various experiments in the Hawthorne plants of the Western Electric Company under the direction of Elton Mayo Experiment 1: Verification of the relationship between illuminance and work output o Result: Every change in lighting leads to constant or higher productivity. Experiment 2: Review of the influence of work breaks and cooperative leadership style on work performance o Result: Every change leads to constant or higher productivity. Interpretation: Psychological factors have a strong influence on work performance Study of social needs in the workplace established by the Hawthorne studies The studies made it clear that operational productivity is influenced by both human nature and machines. The Hawthorne studies put the issue of work motivation on the organizational research agenda. The relationship between the individual and the group was also increasingly addressed. This created a viable framework for “HR research". Organizational research is from now on "organizational and HR research" ➔ Paradigm shift in organizational research gave greater importance to the individual -> Human Relations Movement o „The value of my Company walks out of the door every evening“ (Bill Gates) Introduction Fundamentals of (work) motivation research - Basic (biological) assumption that humans are biological beings who have an "inner life". Individual preferences, inclinations, feelings, moods, desires, goals are variables that influence the functioning of the organization. Motivation was and still is a central aspect of organizational and personnel research and practice. - What is motivation? What are sources of motivation? Can people be motivated? If so, how can a person be motivated? How can an organization control its output via the path "motivation"? Motivation: A basic definition - We call motivation the entity of all motives that lead to willingness to act, and the human striving for goals or desirable target objects based on emotional and neuronal activity. The conversion of motives into actions is called volition or behavioral regulation. Motivation shows itself through goal-oriented behavior (consciously or unconsciously). First theories were based on the paradigm of homeostasis, the physiological need of every organism to be in equilibrium (more about this in the lecture "Stress"). -> be at Peace with myself Emotion (feeling) is closely linked to motivation. Feelings typically indicate how strongly a motive is satisfied. 1 - Psychology: Usually there is a joint lecture "Motivation and Emotion". Motivation and emotion are constructs that are difficult to separate. The Beginnings of Motivation Research: In Search of Eudaimony - - Some Greek philosophers (e.g. Epicurus) saw hedonism (= the belief that pleasure, or the abscence of pain ist the most important principle in determinig the mortaility of a potential course of action) as the main driving force in human behavior. People were described as beings who used their efforts to seek joy and avoid pain. 17th and 18th century philosophers such as Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill (utilitarianism) developed these thoughts further. Psychology as an empirical science was founded by the appointment of Wilhelm Wundts to the University of Leipzig. Motivation research was soon "psychologized" Basic factors influencing human behavior Early models of motivation - Which historical assumptions about the motivations and control of human action shape motivational research to this day? Frequently cited answers: o Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic motivation theory o Clark. L. Hull's drive theory o Henry A. Murray's Theory of psychogenic needs Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic motivation theory - Freud revolutionized scientific-psychological thinking at his time by accepting unconscious reasons for action. Development and constant revision of psychoanalysis during his 40-year career: o Developmental psychology, personality psychology, clinical and cultural-theoretical partial theories The core concept of the psychoanalytic motivation model is drive reduction. According to Freud, drives are psychological representations of stimuli coming from within the body that signal an imbalance. Targeted action results from the effort to restore inner balance (homeostasis). The overriding goal of human action is to avoid pain and gain pleasure (hedonism), the desirable state is low stimulus (lack of need). Drive motivates behavior in the direction of relevant objects that are suitable for satisfying needs and thus reducing drive. The main focus was on the intrapsychic dynamics of suppressed sexual and aggressive impulses. o Visible through: Neuroses, compulsions, dreams, jokes, mistakes Introduction of personality instances (ego, id, super ego) and the concept of the unconscious Ego: cognitive processes involved in the control of action o Planned thinking, attention, memory 2 - - o In the service of the other two personality instances Super-Ego: Socially Mediated Values and Norm Orientations o What we call conscience. Id: seat of all driving impulses o Unconscious o Desire for immediate satisfaction Reduction of the drive stimulus by dreams, fantasies, delay of gratification Pioneers of motivational research explicitly refer to Freud Clark L. Hull's Drive Theory (1943) - Attempt at a General Theory of Behavior - - Hull was one of the most influential representatives of behaviorism founded by John B. Watson at the beginning of the 20th century. Commitment to the analysis of exclusively objectively measurable phenomena (that excludes dreams, fantasies, etc.). Explanation of behavior as the interplay of needs and environmental states. Behavior-triggering states of need extended the previously valid learning theories, which only very implicitly took them into account. o Experiments were always carried out on starving animals, but this fact was not explicitly integrated into the theories. Definition of the drive as an important variable influencing behavior. Hulls' law of habit formation was strictly mathematically formulated and linked to the law of effect (Law of effect, Thorndike, 1913). Hull's theory in short: behavioral tendency = habit x drive Habit: A behavioral tendency acquired through reinforcement learning. Drive strength can be determined objectively. The concept of the incentive - Hull's idea, which is still relevant today for organizational and personnel research, was the concept of incentives (= A thing thst motivates or encourages someone to do something). Hull found that, despite constant habit and drive strengths, experimental animals differed greatly in their behavior, namely with regard to the reward resulting from their behavior Hull integrated this observation into his formula: o Behavioral Tendency = Habit x Drive x Incentive Motivators of behavior are therefore no longer found only within the organism (drives, habits), but also in the environment (incentives). Incentives are still the core variable on which organizations can act in the context of employee motivation. o Monetary incentives (wages, bonuses, company cars, etc.) o Non-monetary incentives (status, recognition, events, etc.) Drive and Reinforcement Theories Strongly Criticized by Humanistic Psychology - Abraham Maslow: o Founding father of humanistic psychology. o Introduced the term "positive psychology". o Investigations of existentialism to create psychological knowledge. o First content theories of motivation tried to explain what needs man has 3 Content theories of motivation: - In the 1950s, the question of what motivates people was an important research topic. Due to the focus on individual motivational factors, these theories were referred to in their entirety as "content theories". Some of the best known content theories are: o Maslow: Need hierarchy (1954), refined by Alderfer (1972) o Murray (1938), extended by McClelland (1961, 1971) o Herzberg (1959): Two Factor Theory Maslow's Theory of the Hierarchy of Needs (1954) - - - On the lower levels there are the "deficit needs". These include basic physiological motives (hunger, thirst), security and belonging. In addition, there are so-called "growth motives" (or insatiable needs) such as recognition, appreciation and self-realization, which are related to performance and personal development. Alderfer (1972) continued to work on this model, separating motives into existence, social attachment, and growth. Critique of the hierarchy of needs: o It is unclear exactly where the dividing lines between the individual hierarchical levels run. o It has not been clarified whether the motives stand in relation to each other in a hierarchy at all. o Theory is based on Western individualistic societies. Henry A. Murray's Theory of Person-Environment References (1938) - - - Murray formulated the ambitious goal: "to inquire into the nature of man" and dedicated his book "Explorations in Personality" to Sigmund Freud ("whose genius contributed most fruitful working hypotheses"). Central question: What are man's aspirations? The list was very complex and not hierarchical: o Submissiveness, Performance, Social connection, Aggression, Independence, Resistance, Respect, Self-protection, Influence, Self-portrayal, Avoidance of pain, Protection of self-esteem, Caring for others, Order, Play, Rejection, Sensual feelings, Sexuality, Experiencing caring, Intellectual openmindedness The achievement motive was central to further organizational and HR research: o McClelland's achievement motive theory Important methodological contribution by Murray: Thematic apperception test (TAT), today standard measurement method for measuring implicit motives McClelland's Theory of Achievement Motives (1953) - - Performance is the most intensively researched topic in motivational psychology up to date. McClelland et al. demanded that the one-sided preoccupation with biological deficit motives is not sufficient to fully explore motivation in humans, and that suitable test procedures must be developed to explore motivation in humans. Development of a measurement method for psychogenic needs 4 - - - o Achievement motivation as "simple" testable concept o Performance targets are easy to manipulate in the lab o Achievement is a "one-person-game", i.e. no complex group experiments necessary Achievement-motivated behavior: o achievement-oriented behavior is defined as behavior aimed at achieving a standard of quality. One is motivated to master a task, to do something particularly well, or to keep up in the competition. Parallels to Murray's Theory of Motivation Central aspect of the achievement motive theory: o The motive comes exclusively from the enjoyment of the achievement itself ("thrill of accomplishment") and from the self-evaluating emotions. o Success: satisfaction, pride o Failure: shame, despondency. If performance is only shown in order to receive something (salary, bonus) or to impress others, this is not an indication of a “achievement motive" in the narrower sense of the performance motive theory. The relevance of the achievement motive for the ecnomy led to McClelland et al.'s work being very influential in personnel research and practice. o McClelland (1961): Positive relationship between the individual motives of a country's inhabitants and its economic development. o McClelland & Franz (1992): Achievement motive in 31-year-olds correlates strongly with their income ten years later. Protestant work ethics is also regarded as a "source of prosperity” Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory (1959) - - - Frederick Herzberg devised a content theory of work motivation based on two factors o Content of the work (motivators) o Context of work (hygiene factors) Hygiene factors can reduce dissatisfaction, but not bring satisfaction: o Remuneration and salary, management style, autonomy of work, interpersonal relationships, security, work-life balance Motivators can bring satisfaction: o Work performance, recognition, work content, responsibility, career advancement, growth Herzberg's theory established "job design" and the observance of today's standard hygiene factors was explicitly used for the first time in personnel policy. o Workplace health management, working time models, etc. Modern Motivation Theories Sources of motivation - - Intrinsic motivation (Self-drive): o People pursue an activity because they find it interesting in itself and derive spontaneous satisfaction from it. Extrinsic motivation (External drive): o requires an instrumentality between the activity and a separable consequence such as material or immaterial rewards. Satisfaction does not come from the activity itself, but from the resulting reward. Evidence for the existence of intrinsic motivation was obtained from animal experiments - Harlow studies in the 1950s: o Capuchin monkeys work a puzzle voluntarily and without pay 5 o Various experiments from the Harlow laboratory suggested that extrinsic motivation might have a negative effect on intrinsic motivation. Decis (1975) cognitive evaluation theory - - - People are motivated by themselves to learn new things, to seek challenges and to constantly develop themselves. The organism has a tendency to be productive on its own initiative (organismic growth tendency). At the time of its development, this approach stood in stark contrast to behaviorist theories such as operant conditioning (Skinner, 1971), according to which living beings learn and act through external pressure (punitive and reward learning). Deci (1971) showed that extrinsic motivators can inhibit motivation (corrupting effect or crowding-out effect) Strong evidence against behaviorist theories of action. Important: o Results of the Deci (1971) studies from today's perspective no clear empirical evidence for corrupting effect (sample size, effect strengths) But: crowding-out effect strongly researched in psychology, economics and business economics Experimental studies on the role of Meaning/Purpose See slides 30-43 Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation Important: The individual aspects are not always absolutely distinguishable! The Continuum of Self-Determination in the Theory of Self-Determination by Deci and Ryan (1985) 6 Theories of intrinsic motivation: Flow (Csikszentmihaly, 1975) - - What motivates people to act "purposelessly" (mountaineers, artists, inventors, chess players)? People report being "in flow" in this situation. One becomes "one" with the activity and loses oneself in it. Characteristics of the flow: o Deep involvement in an action o Merging consciousness and action o feeling of strong control o Distorted time perception „You are so involved in what you‘re doing you aren‘t even thinking about yourself as separate from the immediate activity. You‘re no longer a participant observer, only a participant. You‘re moving in harmony with something else you‘re part of“ (Czikszentmihaly, 1974, S. 86). Conditions and consequences of flow - - Fitting of requirements and capabilities Clear objective Immediate feedback Environmental conditions (undisturbed by mobile phone, e-mail, noise etc.) Concept of the "autotelic person o Personality trait characterized by the ability to set oneself self-determined realistic goals, to perceive difficulties as challenges, to make use of learning opportunities, reduced self-awareness Consequences: o "optimal motivational state" o Optimal state of experience o Peak performance state o Negative: Danger of addiction and risk behaviors (We tend to get in flow for for example gambling) Goals, Volition and Action Control - - - Goals: o Goals are cognitive representations of desired states. Goals differ from desires in the commitment they have for the person. While one still indulges in positive fantasies about desires, "how nice it would be if...", goals are connected with a definite decision to act, i.e. with the intention to actively bring about the desired target state (Bargh et al., 2010). Volition o Psychological term for what we call "willpower." o Narziss Ach was one of the first to analyze the meaning of will for behavior o Theory about the efficacy of will Action control o Cognitive ability to achieve goals (working memory, etc.) It is not always an easy way to motive satisfaction... - Virtuoso violin playing requires effort and many hours of practice To have an athletic body means to do sports, if you would rather sleep, or to do without a piece of cake. To realize one's career aspirations requires “willpower“ and grit (qualification times, training, etc.). In short: On the way to the goal we often have to take a stony path. This requires self-regulation (i.e. the ability to remain true to the set goal and the ability to align behavior with the goal). 7 Example: Theory of Fantasy Realization (Oettingen, 2000) - - Gabriele Oettingen researched strategies on how people can be more successful in developing a high degree of commitment to attractive and feasible goals. Central Concept: Mental Contrasting Systematic swinging back and forth between the benefits of a goal (e.g. being a professor at the university) and efforts (giving a lecture every week). o Both effort and reward are salient to people Mental contrasting is more suitable for achieving goals than simple "dreaming". Example: Learning versus performance goals (Carol Dweck, 1999) - People differ systematically in their naïve theory: o Entity Theory (fixed mindset) o Changeability Theory (growth mindset) o The former see personality traits (intelligence, math knowledge, musical talent, etc.) as fateful (fixed), the latter see it as an workable variable (growth). o Framing to learning goals can be performance-enhancing, since it "makes sense" to learn something or to achieve something. The Strength Model of Self-Control (Baumeister et al., 1998) - - The exercise of self-control relies on a limited reservoir of self-control energy. Muscle metaphor of self-control o self-control can lose its strength like a muscle, then self-control tasks are less successful Central paradigm: Ego-depletion task:„The core idea behind ego-depletion ist that the self‘s acts of volition draw on some limited resource, akin to strength and energy and that, therefore, one act of volition will have a detrimental mental impact in subsequent volition. [...] We use the term ego depletion to refer to a temporary reduction in the self-capacityor willingness to engage in volitional action (including controlling the environment, controlling the self, making choices, and iniating action) caused by prior exercise of volition (Baumeister et al., 1998, p. 1252-1253). Typical study design: double task Control group may rest mentally, experimental group must solve cognitively difficult task The control group is then in a better position to maintain self-control. Replication attempts generally not very successful (see ManyLabs studies) What we have not (yet) dealt with (but is immensely important for work motivation) - The social need for connection (Baumeister & Leary, 1995) is the subject of the lecture on justice. The Equity Theory by Adams (1965) is also the subject of the lecture on justice Implicit versus Explicit Motives Psychology Lecture Theories of expectation (Lewin (1938), Tolman (1959), Vroom (1964), Porter & Lawler, (1968), Kanfer (1990)) follow in the lecture on institutional economics). Power motivation is the topic of the lecture on leadership. Approach and avoidance motivation -> Psychology lecture Emotions -> Psychology Lecture 8