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UNDERSTANDING THE SELF composition and processes of the world around Lesson 1: ​The Self from Various them. Perspectives Unsatisfied with mere mytho...

UNDERSTANDING THE SELF composition and processes of the world around Lesson 1: ​The Self from Various them. Perspectives Unsatisfied with mere mythological and supernatural explanations, these so-called The Philosophical Constructions of Self Pre-Socratic philosophers turned to observation, documentation, and reasoning. Many philosophical perspectives deal with the understanding of the self. The philosophy of Orientation of Thinking man is a being or self and its ultimate reason for Rationalism - regards reason as the being. It is a comprehensive study of truth. chief source and test of knowledge. Philosophers: Socrates, Plato, Kant, and Man's human nature comprises many Descartes components that are unified and harmonized in Skepticism - always in doubt and that the self - physical, intellectual, moral, social, knowledge is uncertain. Philosophers: political, religious, aesthetic, sensual, sexual, Humes and Socrates and economic. Empiricism - all of our knowledge comes from our sensory experience. In these components the self is the whole man Philosophers: Humes, Ryle, Locke, but taken in totality man, the self is imbued with Aristotle, Churchland , and reason, free will, and responsibility. This man, Maurice-Ponty when fully developed becomes man, a many Idealism - the nature of reality is based splendored creation through Philosophy. on ideas, perceptions, or consciousness rather than physical matter. Thus, it was inevitable to come up with various Philosophers: Socrates, Plato conceptions of what it means to be human and in Platonism - refers to the philosophical doing so, the different definitions of the self. ideas and doctrines derived from the works of the ancient Greek philosopher What is Philosophy? Plato. Philosophers: Plato > Comes from two Greek words philos which Existentialism - emphasizes on means “love”, sophia which means “wisdom”. personal experience and responsibility Thus, a philosopher is a “Lover of Wisdom” and the complexities of human > WISDOM connotes knowledge - knowledge existence. Philosophers: Maurice-Ponty directed to the fundamental and pervasive concerns of existence. Philosophical Perspectives > WISDOM in philosophy is in how you help Socrates - “An unexamined life is not yourself think more clearly, precisely and worth living...” systematically. Plato - “The Soul is Immortal...” > Is is the investigation of normal and St. Augustine - “I am Doubting. fundamental issues concerning matters for Therefore I...” example, presence, information, values, reason, Rene Descartes - “I Think Therefore I psyche and dialect am...” John Locke - “The Self is Greek thinkers before Socrates, like Thales, Consciousness...” Pythagoras, and Heraclitus, focused on the  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF David Hume - “There is no Self...” Immanuel Kant - “We Construct the Socrates saw a person as dualistic, that Self...” is, every person is composed of body Gilbert Ryle - “The Self is the Way and soul. People Behave...” There is an imperfect and impermanent Maurice Jean Jacques Merleau-Ponty aspect of every one of us, which is our - “The Self is Embodied Subjectivity” physical body, and then, there is also the Paul Churchland - “The Self is the perfect and permanent, which is the Brain” soul. SOCRATES “The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.” (469-399 BCE) Socrates provided a change of perspective by focusing on the self. His life and ideas, documented by his students, the historian Xenophon and the philosopher Plato, showed how Socrates applied systematic questioning of the self. PLATO Socrates believed that it is the duty of “The soul of man is immortal the philosopher to know oneself. To live and imperishable” (428-347 without knowing who you are and what BCE) virtues you can attain is the worst that Plato further expounded on the can happen to a person. Thus, he noted idea of the soul by stating that that an “unexamined life is not worth it has three parts/components: living.” ○ The appetitive soul - Contributions: responsible for the ○ Socratic method or Dialect desires and cravings of style of teaching - a method of a person. inquiry by answering questions ○ The rational soul – the with another question. Socratic thinking, reasoning, and methods consist of two judging aspect processes ironic and maieutic. ○ The spirited soul – ○ Ironic process - to make the accountable for seeker of knowledge, clear his emotions and also mind for action. It removes makes sure that the from his mind prejudice and rules of reason are leads to the humble and sincere followed in order to confession of ignorance. attain victory and/or ○ Maieutic process - draws the honor. truth out of the pupils' mind which is done using dialogue or conversation.  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF In his work The Republic, he emphasized that all He argues that a person should only three parts of the soul must work harmoniously believe the things that can pass the test to attain justice and virtue in a person. of doubt. In his “Discourse on the Method” and The rational soul must be well-developed and in “Meditations on First Philosophy”, he, charge, the emotions from the spirited soul are therefore, concluded that the only thing checked, and the desires of the appetitive must that a person cannot doubt is the be controlled and focused on those that give life, existence of his/her “self”. Because even like eating, drinking, and sleeping, among doubt about the self proves that there is others. a thinking/doubting self (“cogito ergo sum”) ST. AUGUSTINE He believes that to doubt is to think; the “The good man, though a slave, is free; cognitive aspect of human nature is his the wicked, though he reigns, is a slave. basis for the existence of the self. (354-430 AD) The self is a combination of 2 distinct St. Augustine is considered as one of the entities: most significant Christian thinkers, esp. ○ Cogito ergo sum - the things in the development of Latin Christian that think (mind) which is the theology. proof of human existence. His idea of the “self” merged that of ○ Extenza - an e`xtension of the Plato and the then-new Christian mind (body) The body is like a perspective, which led him to believe in machine that is controlled by the the duality of a person mind and aided by the mind. He believes that there is an imperfect part of us, which is connected with the JOHN LOCKE world and yearns to be with the divine. “The only fence against the world is a There is part of us that is not bound by thorough knowledge of it” (1632-1704) this world and therefore attains John Locke was an English philosopher. immortality. His works as a physician provided him The imperfection of the body with an idea that deviated from the incapacitates it from thriving in the duality of the body or soul. spiritual communion with God, thus, it A person’s mind is a blank state (tabula must die for the soul to reach the eternal rasa) at birth; it is through experiences realm. However, this communion of the that this blank state is filled, and a soul with God can only be attained if the personal identity or “self’ is formed. body lives in this world with virtue. This “self” cannot be found in the soul nor the body but in one’s consciousness RENĒ DESCARTES (Nimbalkar 2011). “I think, therefore I am” (1596-1650) John Locke stated that personal identity René Descartes was a French or the self is found in the consciousness. mathematician, scientist, and He identified the brain as comprising the philosopher. consciousness that has one's identity. It is alleged that life is a quest for the  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF understanding of what is after death and IMMANUEL KANT immortality. All our knowledge begins with sense, He argued as well that a person may turns into understanding, and ends with only be judged for the acts of his body reeson. There is nothing higher than but the truth, according to him, is that reason. (1711-1776) one is liable only for the acts of which One of the most influential philosophers he is conscious. in Modern Western philosophy. He thinks that reason, not mere DAVID HUME experience, is the foundation of “Be a philosopher; but, amidst all your knowledge. It is like seeing a visual philosophy, be still a man.” (1711-1776) effect on television, your experience David Hume was a Scottish philosopher says it is there, but the reason says it is and an empiricist who believed that all only a computer-generated image. concepts and knowledge come from the The “self” organizes our experience into senses and experiences. something meaningful. It can do such a He argued that there is no self beyond thing because it is independent from what can be experienced. sensory experiences; something that We do not know others because we have transcends or is above our seen/touched their souls; we know them consciousness. because of what we can actually Kant said that every person has an inner observe. and outer self comprising consciousness. This “self” according to him is a According to Kant, the intellect and the “bundle or collection of different psychological state of a being is what perceptions, which succeed each other we call the inner self while the outer self with an inconceivable rapidity, and are a is made of the senses and the physical perpetual flux and movement” self. The self is a combination of experiences Largely, the object of the inner self is of a person. Experiences can be the 'soul' while the outer self is directed categorized into: to the 'body'. ○ Impressions – real/actual experiences or sensations like GILBERT RYLE feeling the rough edges of a “In searching for the self, one cannot stone or tasting a sweet ice simultaneously be the hunter and the cream hunted” (1900-1976) ○ Ideas – copies of Ryle focused on observable behavior in impressions/representations of defining the self. He stated that every the world and sensations, like human being has both a physical body love, faith, or even an and a non-physical mind which are association with this certain ordinarily "harnessed together" while we event is caused by something in are alive. the past could possibly create He stated that "A person, therefore lives another reaction in the future. through two collateral histories, one consisting of what happens in and to his body, and other consisting of what  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF happens in and to his mind. The first is “Eliminative materialism” or public, the second private." This simply “Eliminativism” means that the old explains how the mind is operating terms we use to describe the mind are within the person himself while the outdated. body is subjected to the observation and If not mere “folk psychology”, thus the criticisms of the public. need to use more accurate and Ryle does not adhere to the idea of scientifically proven terms, esp. based duality and sees the self as an entirely of on neuroscience research. thoughts, emotions and actions of Neuroscience somehow shows a person that relates to observable connection of what we call mental states behavior. that of the physical activities of the We get to know others by observing brain. their behavior and inferring about their “selves”; we can apply the same The dual perspective of the “self” continues to observation and reflections on ourselves exist, perhaps because our brains are programmed to think of dualities. MAURICE MERLEAU PONTY We know not through our intellect but Our religious beliefs, that of a mortal body and through our experience.” (1908-1961) an immortal soul, also affect such continuity. A leading French existentialist and However, new ideas from academic fields as phenomenologist, also contributes to the well as findings from technological advances are idea by stating that mind and body are being considered and incorporated in this debatE interconnected with each other and and the discovery of the self. therefore, cannot be separated. Our body is our connection to the Being open to such new ideas may help us know external world, including other people, more about our own “self”. thus all experiences are embodied. This also includes the thoughts and emotions of a person. Lesson 2: The Self, Society, and Culture PAUL CHURCHLAND There is a common saying in the social sciences, A Canadian philosopher known for his especially in sociology and anthropology that studies in neurophilosophy and the Human beings are, by nature, social beings. That philosophy of mind (the study of the is, each of us doesn’t exist in a vacuum. We philosophy of the mind, the philosophy interact with people and even the most introvert of science, neuroscience, and of us would have to relate and communicate psychology). with few. As Hughes and Kroehler 2008) puts it: He further utilized knowledge from other academic and research fields to “We are born into a social environment; we fully talk about the self as well as the mind. develop into human beings in a social One of those who proposed the use of environment; and we live our lives in a social “eliminative materialism” or environment. What we think, how we feel, and “eliminativism”. what we say and do, all are shaped by our The Self is the brain. interactions with other people.  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF Every person lives in a society, which is defined As a person grows into a society, he/she imbibes as a group of people sharing the same culture the culture of that society through the processes and typically interacts in a definite territory. of socialization. Each society has a culture or a way of life for those living in a specific society. Socialization (or enculturation in anthropology) is a lifelong process of learning, teaching, Culture is commonly divided into: internalizing, and living the culture of a society. Material culture – attires, tools, weapons, architectural designs, religious Other things that a person will learn that will implements affect his/her “self’ are status and roles. Nonmaterial culture – the belief systems, the values, the norms or Status expected behaviors, as well as the Our position in a society or a particular shared language and symbols. group. You may be the first child, a teenager, a student, or a president of a Culture student organization; it can also be your Described as a group of people’s way of distinguishing title relative to the other life which includes behaviors, values, members of the group. beliefs and symbols that they accept Status can either be: (usually unconsciously) that are socially a. ascribed - inherited or given transmitted through communication and birth, or imitation from generation to generation. b. achieved - personally acquired for achieving something. An ascribed status is being a prince for example, while an achieved status is being elected as a president. However, each position or title also has expected roles or parts to play. Included in our roles are expected behaviors, norms, values, and attitudes. Simply put, “society is composed of people” and culture is composed of ideas, behavior, and Key Concepts material possessions” (Kendall 2006). These two Values (Noun) coexist and are interdependent with each other. Ideal behaviors or principles that set the standard of what is acceptable and To maintain a smooth-functioning society, social admirable from a person who is part of a institutions are created. society Norms (Action verb) Social Institutions are sets of ideas, norms, Rules on what to do or what not to do in practices, or mechanisms organized and focused a certain situation. on addressing the needs of the community (McIntyre 2002).  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF Social institutions past and the culture of society gets transmitted from one generation to another. It safeguards 1. Kinship/Family – the most basic social continuity or brings about changes to the other institution of a society that organizes us based on social institutions. It aims to produce people our familial ties. It can be based on blood who can live harmoniously in the given social relations, like sibling relations (consanguineal), environment as well as able to be productive by marriage, like a husband and a wife (affinal), citizens for the economy. or social, which are relationships not falling under the first two but you still consider them as Some may look at this as a mechanistic way of family (Crossman 2019). producing workers, but one must also consider 2. Economics/Market – this system aims to that education has also played in bringing new regulate the flow of resources and services. ideas that changed what we have been Ideally, this should ensure that everyone gets a oppressive status quos in the past. fair share of goods or that a person in need will get the service he/she needs to address a Thus, a good education from a reputable school necessity. Ideally, this system should also must always be sought after. The effects of regulate the price of the products to ensure fair almost twenty years in school to the mindset of a competition among producers and sellers. At person cannot be diminished. It does not only times, it can also control the demand by dictate a person’s skill on the job, but it will also promoting a need or want for a certain product. affect his/her behavior and attitude toward social 3. Politics/Government – this is usually issues and life in general. composed of various organizations ensuring peace and order by legitimizing the use of the 5. Religion/Church – an organized set of power of certain people or groups. In the practices, symbols and artifacts regarding the Philippines, the government is divided into three belief in the supernatural. There are several equal branches: reasons why people believe in the supernatural: Executive, headed by the president and Explanation of the unexplainable who is in charge of enforcing the law. Meaning and purpose of life Legislative, composed of the House of Continuity of relationship with the Representatives and the Senate of the people that we care about even after Philippines who are in charge of death among others. creating, amending, or repealing those The Philippines is a Catholic country but our laws notion about supernatural and mythical beings is Judiciary, led by the Supreme Court to a very prominent part of our lives most provide proper interpretation of the laws especially those Filipinos who come from the and ensure that they are following the countryside. Constitution and basic human rights. These three branches are treated equally Many Filipinos who live in rural or mountainous with powers to check and balance each areas still believe in mythical spirits and other. Under the constitution, they serve monstrous creatures because they are said to be the country and the utmost authority still present only in the country side where there are comes from the people. forests and other uninhabited areas. 4. Education/School – the basic function of schools is to ensure that the knowledge of the  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF Although believing in superstition and dopamine release, in turn, keeps people coming supernatural beings conflicts with Catholicism, back because they want to repeat those feel-good Filipinos simply cannot ignore the stories experiences. because there is always that curious and freakish view of the unknown. Social media also can boost self-esteem, the belief that one is good and valuable to others, Belief in supernatural beings is one of the basic especially if a person is viewed favorably online characteristics of religion. or gets several likes or interactions on their content. And social media allows some people to A supernatural being is a being that is better share parts of their identity that may be and more powerful than any creature in the challenging to communicate in person. natural world. Social media can be particularly helpful for The supernatural or above natural includes all people with social anxiety, who struggle to that cannot be explained by the law of nature, interact with people in person. including things with characteristics of or relating to ghosts, gods or other types of spiritual 7. Health services - well-being is a positive and other non-material beings, or to things outcome that is meaningful for people and for beyond nature. many sectors of society because it tells us that people perceive that their lives are going well. 6. Mass/Social Media - The media plays a role Good living conditions (e.g., housing, and in self-concept development as well—both mass employment) are fundamental to well-being. media and social media. When these media promote certain ideals, we're more likely to Tracking these conditions is important for public make those ideals our own. The more often these policy. However, many indicators that measure ideals are presented, the more they affect our living conditions fail to measure what people self-identity and self- perception. think and feel about their lives, such as the (https://www.verywellmind.com) quality of their relationships, their positive emotions and resilience, the realization of their Mass media refers to technological devices that potential, or their overall satisfaction with life— reach a large number of people, whereas social i.e., their “well-being.” Well-being generally media refers to computer-based technology that includes global judgments of life satisfaction allows users to create and distribute information and feelings ranging from depression to joy as well as participate in social networking. (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2008) Social media tends to reinforce use. People quickly become hooked on checking their 8. Recreation - an organized system of social statuses for comments and likes as well as relationships for satisfying the human desire of perusing other people's posts. entertainment, amusement and play among others. Recreation consists of activities or Using social media sometimes activates the experiences carried on within leisure, usually brain's reward center by releasing dopamine, chosen voluntarily by the participant – either also known as the feel-good chemical. This because of satisfaction, pleasure or creative enrichment derived, or because he perceives  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF certain personal or socia values to be gained Whether we like to admit it or not, we from them. It may, also be perceived as the actually need others to affirm and process of participation, or as the emotional state reinforce who we think we are. derived from involvement. We also need them as reference points about our identity. In the case of Leisure refers to the free time that people can Facebook, there are those who will spend away from their everyday responsibilities consciously or unconsciously try to (e.g. work and domestic tasks) to rest, relax and garner more likes and/or positive enjoy life. It is during leisure time that people reactions, and that can and will reinforce participate in recreation and sporting activities. their self- concept. Our notion of what is personally Sport refers to any type of organized physical important to us is also influenced by the activity, e.g. soccer, rugby, football, basketball, current trends of what is important in and athletics (Gulzar 2021). our society. Education might be an important thing to your self-concept, Theoretical Approach because you grew up in a family that valued education. Money might be GEORGE HERBERT MEAD important to some, because they may Social psychology is especially have grown in a poor family and interested in the effect which the social realized how important money is in gorup has in the determination of the addressing certain needs. Being a nurse experience and conduct of the individual or a lawyer can be priority in your self- member. schema, because it is the in-demand Mead was an American philosopher, course during your time. sociologist, and psychologist, who is Social interaction and group affiliation, considered one of the founders of social therefore, are vital factors in creating psychology and symbolic our self-concept, especially our social interactionism. identity or our perception of who we are He was a professor at the University of based on our membership to certain Chicago and one of the leading figures groups (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). in the early development of the field of It is also inevitable then, that we can sociology. have several social identities, which can Theory of Symbolic Interactionism overlap, and that we can automatically George Herbert Mead claimed that the play the roles as we interact with our self is created, developed, and changed groups. through human interaction (Hogg and Vaughan 2010) for three reasons: RUTH FULTON BENEDICT The “self” did not just come out of thin Benedict (1887-1948) was a prominent air. Our sociocultural context affects American anthropologist known for her who we are, even most of the choices work on culture and personality and her we think we freely make. This influence contributions to cultural anthropology. still affects you even if you move from Benedict was a key figure in the culture one place to another and adopt a new and personality school of thought, which perspective.  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF examined the interplay between culture Thus, studying a person’s personality and individual personality development. can already provide us with an idea of She argued that each culture selects his/her cultural background and social limited number of personality traits to upbringing and vice versa (Dia et.al. emphasize, leading to distinct cultural 2014). This is especially highlighted in patterns. Mead’s “Patterns of Culture” masterpiece. MARGARET MEAD Meanwhile, Ruth Benedict in her Mead (1901-1978) was a renowned anthropological books, concluded that American cultural anthropologist who personal development, especially on significantly contributed to the field gender roles and traits, is not based on through her ethnographic research and biological traits. Most of these roles are writings. based on cultural expectations. Mead was an influential public intellectual and wrote extensively for CLIFFORD JAMES GEERTZ popular audiences, makinG One of the most important and widely anthropology accessible to the general read anthropologist of the late 20th public. century. She held various academic and One of the founders of symbolic or curatorial positions, including working interpretive anthropology, at the American. Museum of Natural This was an approach to culture that was History in New York City. very similar to the analysis of literature Both Mead and Benedict were and art. associated with developing ideas related Geertz was famous for his writing style. to Cultural Determinism. He was widely cited by almost every Theory of Cultural Determinism anthropologist in the 1970s and 80s. The contention that culture strongly Later, his works were less widely cited impacts how the individual views because his approach had been himself. incorporated into the practice of most Human nature is determined by the anthropologists. ideas, meanings, beliefs, and values He died in 2006. learned as members of a society. Clifford James Geertz looks at culture as With the different cultures that exist not a collection of symbols with meanings, only in society but all over the world, which are made, communicated, and anthropologists suggest that THERE IS negotiated by each person to make sense NO UNIVERSAL or RIGHT WAY OF of their lives and interactions (Clifford BEING HUMAN; the right way is Geertz: Work and Legacy, n.d.) always based on ONE’S CULTURE. Culture and Personality CHARLES HORTON COOLEY Another school of thought founded by He was an American sociologist who Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead used the socio-psychological approach argued that the personality or the self to understanding how societies work. depends on a certain group's cultural He earned his doctorate at the practices and socialization process. University of Michigan and taught at the  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF same university as a sociology professor ERVING GOFFMAN until the end of his life. in his written Goffman (1922-1982) was a Canadian work, Human Nature and the Social sociologist and writer, considered one of Order (1902), he discussed the the most influential sociologists of the formation of the self through interaction. 20th century. His work focused on the Looking Glass Self detailed study of face-to-face interaction Charles Horton Cooley said that people and the subtleties of social behavior. change or develop their respective self His work remains a cornerstone in the concept as they engage in social field of sociology, providing essential interaction. frameworks for understanding the This idea is called looking glass self – a complexities of human interaction and process by which a person develops his social behavior. self-image based on how others treat One of his concepts and influences is him. Their treatment therefore is like a Dramaturgical Analysis. mirror reflecting one’s personality. Dramaturgical Analysis Seeing oneself as boastful or timid is Goffman believes that people in their based on how others treated him as everyday lives are very much like actors such. A person cannot see himself performing on stage. If one imagines without a mirror, so self-image cannot himself doing what goes on in a theatre be seen unless others react to a person’s of everyday life, he is doing behavior. dramaturgical analysis – the study of Cooley suggested that the looking-glass social interactions in terms of theatrical self is a lifelong mental process that is performance. characterized by three phases: As people interact, they behave like How one imagines how he appears to actors by following a script that they others. Ex. One may think of himself as have learned from their parents, gaining some extra weight, such as teachers, and friends. The script becoming “fat”. essentially dictates a person how to How one imagines how others will behave based on his status and roles. Ex. judge his appearance. People typically In describing the changes that occurs in think of obese people as unattractive. a waiter’s behavior from the kitchen to Hence, based on the example given, one the dining room. In the dining room will conclude that he is unattractive in (front stage), the waiters project a polite the eyes of others. gesture to their customers. While in the How one perceives other’s judgment to kitchen (backstage), they openly reveal be such as pride or shame. In this case, their irate behavior or sometimes one will feel embarrassed or ashamed ridicule the servility they must portray regarding his “obese” state. This will front stage. lead to the development of emotional He referred to this process of altering reactions. how the person presents himself to Looking glass self is a subjective others as impression management. process and it is not necessarily in In this book, he wrote how he observed accordance with what is real. that people early in their social interactions learned to slant their  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF presentation of themselves to create Refers to how a person through the preferred appearances and satisfy interaction of genetic and learned particular people. influences, perceives, thinks, and In Goffman's observation of people in develops an understanding of their everyday interactions, he sees environment. Information processing, similarities between real social knowledge, reasoning, language interaction to a theatrical presentation. development, and memory are among This is the reason for the label's the areas of cognitive development. dramaturgical approach to his view. Psychology It was also Goffman, who used the The field of the social sciences that phrase face-work to describe another deals with the description, explanation, aspect of the self. prediction, and control of behavior This was usually observed in situations (Ciccarelli and Meyer, 2006) where face-saving measures are resorted The field assumed the existence of the to in the maintenance of a proper image states of consciousness in human beings of the self in frustrating or embarrassing Psychology further believes that the situations (Schaefer, 2012). world of material things including people exists independently of the We are all actors within the Social perceiving human mind. World, a central theme from Goffman The concept of “Self” in psychology as work. at times interchangeable with other In a sense, we are called “Fakers” or similar terms. Sometimes a framework engaged in a “Con Job” on ourselves to or school of thought would look at what affect other people. we can describe as one aspect of the self Goffman argues that the self is nothing as its focus. more than “Self Presentations” and Mental processes, which are comprised “Role Presentations” of our thoughts (cognition), senses Social life as a theater, with social (perception) and feelings (emotion) that scripts, performances and actors & roles helps us understand and make sense of that perform in the Front and Back the world and who we are within it. Regions of self. (Corcini & Wedding, 2000) The concept of depicting social life as a Theater, Goffman developed the term Psychology as Science Dramaturgy. The systematic method explains human behavior and mental processes. Lesson 3: The Self as Cognitive Reason behind the behavior, mental Construct processes or capacity. Analyzing and conducting studies. Cognitive Development The Psychology of Self focuses on the Is the construction of thought processes, representation of an individual based on his/her including memory, problem solving, and experiences either from the home, school, and decision making, from fancy through other groups, organizations, or affiliations he/she adolescence to adulthood (Wells, 2020). is engaged in.  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF ex. The gifts were sent to ME. The person is William James smiling at ME. The greatest weapon against stress is our ability to choose one thought over Carl Rogers another. The curious paradox is that when I Father of American Psychology and One accept myself just as I am, then I can of the Most Influential American change. Philosophers of All Time. Rogers is a prominent figure in A professor of psychology and humanistic psychology, primarily philosophy at Harvard University and focused on concepts such as known for being one of the great self-actualization, unconditional positive pragmatists. regard, and the client-centered (or Known for his “Theory of the Self” and person-centered) approach in therapy. wrote for many articles on both Although his work is rooted in philosophy and psychology and humanistic psychology, it has published several books like “The connections to cognitive constructs, Principles of Psychology. particularly self-concept. It is in this book where his theory of the He was one of the first to use the term self is explained client rather than patient. JAMES’ ASPECTS OF SELF Carl Rogers’ Theory of personality also 1.“ I self”– is the thinking, acting, and feeling used the same terms, the “I” is one who self (Gleitman et.al. 2011; Hogg and Vaughan acts and decides, while the “me” is what 2010). you think or feel about yourself as an object The self that knows and recognizes who they are ▪ Other concepts similar to self are: and what they have done. It is similar to the 1. Identity – composed of one’s person’s soul or mind; it comprises the totality characteristics, roles, and of the person’s identity; it takes into account the responsibilities, as well as affiliations past, present and future selves of the individual. that define who one (Elmore et.al. 2012). ex. I borrowed the book from the library. I won 2. Self-concept – is basically what the game comes to your mind when you are asked about yourself (Elmore et.al. 2012). 2. “ Me self” – it is the physical characteristics Self, identity, and self-concept are not as well as psychological capabilities that makes fixed. who you are (Gleitman et.al. 2011; Hogg and Ex. When asked about who you are, you Vaughan 2010). can say, “I was a varsity player in Grade 5” which pertains to the past, “a college It can also be considered as a separate object or student which may be the present, and individual that the person refers to when “a future politician” which is the future. discussing or describing their personal While they are not fixed, they are also experiences. not very fluid. Think of a malleable metal, strong and hard, that can be  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF heated and hammered to any shape yet “self” as the results of the interaction retain its core elements. between the Id, the Ego, and the The concept of self-schema is our own Superego. organized system or collection of knowledge about who we are. (Gleitman Sigmund Freud et.al. 2011; Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). Unexpressed emotions will never die. It may also include your interests, your They are buried alive and will come work, your course, your age, your name, forth later in uglier ways. and your physical characteristics among Austrian Psychologist and physician. others. Father of Psychoanalysis As you grow and adapt to the changes One of the most influential people of the around you, they also change. But they twentieth century and his enduring are not passive receivers as they actively legacy has influenced not only shape and affect how you see, think, and psychology but art, literature, and even feel about other things or the people the way people bring up their children. around you (Gleitman et.al. 2011; Freud’s then revolutionary ideas of the Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). probable factors that determine human ○ Ex. When someone states your behavior pave the way for science to first name, even if not talking look into the workings of the about you, your attention is unconscious mind. drawn. Conceptualized the 3 levels of ○ If you have a provincial consciousness that provide an idea of language and you hear someone how a person develops a sense of self. using it, it catches your attention. 3 Aspects of Personality ○ If you consider yourself a book lover, a bookstore may always 1. Id – the structure that is primarily based on entice you out of all the other the pleasure principle. stores in a mall. 2. Ego – the structure that is based on the reality Theories generally see these concepts of principle. It mediates between the impulses of self and identity as mental constructs, the id and the restraints of the superego. created and recreated in memory 3. Superego – primarily dependent on learning (Elmore et.al. 2012). Current research the difference between right and wrong. points to the frontal lobe of the brain as Morality of the action is largely dependent on the specific area in the brain related to childhood upbringing (reward and punishment) the processes of the self (Elmore et.al. 2012). However, one cannot fully discount the effects Several psychologists, especially during of society and culture on the formation of the the field’s earlier development, followed self, identity, and self- concept. this trend of thought by looking deeper into what they thought was the mind. Even as Freud and other theories and researchers The most influential of them is Sigmund try to understand the person by digging deeper Freud. Freud conceptualized the into the mind, they cannot fully discount the processes, construct, and behavior of the huge and important effects of the environment.  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF one of your subjects when you are about This is not nature versus nurture, instead a to spend time playing computer games nature-and-nurture perspective. with your cousins. In other instances, self-awareness can be Internal and External (James Carver, too much that we are concerned about Michael Scheier) being observed and criticized by others, They identified two types of self that we can be also known as self- consciousness aware of: (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). 1.The private self (a person’s internal thoughts At other times, especially with large and feelings) crowds, we may experience 2. The public self (what a person commonly deindividuation or “the loss of shows to others, especially for creating a good individual self-awareness and individual public image (Hogg and Vaughan 2010) accountability” in groups (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). Self-awareness also presents us with at least three other self-schemas: 1. Actual Self – who we are at the present 2. Ideal Self - who we like to be, especially in On Self-Esteem the future Group identity and self-awareness also 3. Ought Self – whom we think we should be in affect our self-esteem, which is defined contrast to the actual self (Higgins 1997 in Hogg as our personal positive or negative and Vaughn 2010) perception or evaluation of ourselves (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014; Gleitman Ex. You are a student interested in basketball but et.al. 2011) are also academicall challenged in most of your One of how our social relationship subjects. affects our self-esteem is through social comparison. Your ideal self might be to practice more and According to the Social Comparison play with the varsity team, but ought to pass Theory, we learn about ourselves, the your subjects as a responsible student. One has appropriateness of our behaviors, as to find solutions to such discrepancies in order well as our social statuses by comparing to avoid agitation, dejection, or other negative aspects of ourselves with other people emotions. (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014; Hogg and Vaughan 2010). Sometimes, all three may be in line with one another. TYPES OF COMPARISON: 1. Upward social comparison – happens when an Self-awareness may be positive or individual compares himself to others who are negative depending on the better than him. circumstances and our next course of action. ex. An adolescent male who values a well-built, Self-awareness can keep you from doing muscled physique compares himself to one who something dangerous. It can help remind is a bodybuilder to inspire him to do workouts to you that there is an exam tomorrow in get the abs that he desires.  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF 2. We may reconsider the importance of the On the negative, when an individual compares aspect or skill in which we were outperformed himself with someone better than him, he may (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). experience inferiority, envy, or frustration. Ex. If we get beaten in drawing, we might think 2. Downward social comparison – it is the more that drawing is not really for us and we should common type of comparing ourselves with find a hobby where we could excel, thus others. It happens when an individual compares preserving our self- esteem. himself to someone who is in a worse situation than he is especially when he is feeling so low. 3. We may also strengthen our resolution to This may make himself feel better knowing that improve that certain aspect of ourselves he is more fortunate than this person. (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). Instead of quitting drawing, we might join On the other hand, comparing oneself to a less seminars, practice more often, read books about fortunate person may give rise to feelings of it, add some elements to our drawing that make superiority and arrogance. it unique, and, so on. Achieving your goal Facebook is the biggest venue of social through hard work may increase your comparison. self-esteem, too. ▪ However, in an attempt to increase or maintain Take note that this occurs not only between our self-esteem, some people become individuals but also among groups. Thus, if a narcissistic. person’s group is performing better and is acknowledged more than the other group, then Narcissism is “a trait characterized by overly his/her self-esteem may also be heightened. high self-esteem, self-admiration, and self-centeredness”. They are often charismatic The social comparison also entails The because of how they take care of their image. Self-evaluation Maintenance Theory, which Taking care of that image includes their states that we can feel threatened when someone interpersonal relationships, thus, they will try to outperforms us, especially when that person is look for better partners, better acquaintances, as close to us (a friend or family) (Tesser 1988 in well as people who will appreciate them a lot. Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). In this case, we react in three ways: This makes them a bad romantic partner or 1. We distance ourselves from that person or friends since they engage in relationships only to redefine our relationship with them (Jhangiani serve themselves. (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). and Tarry 2014). Though self-esteem is a very important concept Some will resort to the silent treatment, or related to the self, studies have shown that it change of friends, while some may also redefine only has a correlation, not causality, to positive by being closer to that person, hoping that some outputs and outlook (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). association may give him/her a certain kind of acknowledgment also. It can be argued that high or healthy self-esteem may result to an overall good personality, but it is not, and should not be, the only source of a person’s healthy perspective of himself/herself.  UNDERSTANDING THE SELF People with high self-esteem are commonly described as outgoing, adventurous, and adaptable in a lot of situations. They also initiate activities and build relationships with people. However, they may also dismiss other activities that do not conform to their self- concept or boost their self-esteem. They may also be bullies and experiment on abusive behaviors with drugs, alcohol, and sex (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014). This duality in behavior and attitudes only proves the mentioned correlation. Baumeister, Smart, and Boden (1996) in their research on self-esteem concluded that programs, activities, and parenting styles to boost self-esteem should only be for rewarding good behavior and other achievements, and not to merely try to make children feel better about themselves or to appease them when they get angry or sad (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014).