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7.2 - Imperialism: Debates Seward and Alaska William H. Seward, as Secretary of State, played a crucial role in expanding U.S. territory by purchasing Alaska from Russia in 1867 for $7.2 million. Though initially mocked as "Seward’s Folly," the acquisition proved valuable due to its resources. Hawaiian Islands American settlers and missionaries had established a significant presence in Hawaii by the late 19th century. In 1893, American settlers aided in overthrowing the Hawaiian monarchy, seeking annexation by the U.S. to avoid tariffs on sugar, but President Grover Cleveland opposed annexation due to his anti-imperialist stance. New Imperialism Economic Interests: The U.S. aimed to expand its markets and secure raw materials like minerals and rubber by establishing control over foreign territories. Political and Military Power: Influential figures like Alfred Thayer Mahan argued that a strong navy and overseas bases were essential for the U.S. to become a world power, leading to the expansion of the U.S. Navy and acquisition of strategic islands. Social Fears: The economic instability of the 1890s, including the Panic of 1893, led to fears of social unrest, and overseas expansion was seen as a way to alleviate domestic pressures. Darwinism and Religion: Many expansionists believed in the racial and cultural superiority of Anglo-Saxons and saw imperialism as a moral duty to spread Christianity and Western civilization. Popular Press: Sensationalist journalism fueled public interest in imperialism by glorifying the adventures and opportunities abroad. Opposition to Imperialism Anti-imperialists argued that imperialism contradicted the principles of self-determination and democracy, as it involved ruling over others without their consent. Many opposed the racial theories used to justify imperialism, rejecting the idea of racial superiority and the incorporation of non-white populations into the U.S. Isolationists believed that following George Washington’s advice to avoid foreign entanglements was still relevant, opposing the costs and moral implications of imperialism. Critics also showed the financial burden of maintaining a large navy and controlling overseas territories, arguing that imperialism was economically unwise. 155 7.3 - The Spanish-American War and Foreign Policy Jingoism and War Introduction In the 1890s, the United States experienced a surge in jingoism, a form of aggressive nationalism that fueled the demand for a more assertive foreign policy. The combination of economic interests, moral concerns, and sensationalist journalism set the stage for the Spanish-American War, with Cuba and the Philippines becoming focal points of U.S. intervention. Causes of the Spanish American War Cuban Revolt: Cuban nationalists resumed their struggle for independence from Spain in 1895. Spain's harsh response, led by General Valeriano Weyler, who created concentration camps where many died, earned him the nickname "The Butcher" in the U.S. press, increasing American sympathy for the Cuban cause. Yellow Press: Sensationalist newspapers like Joseph Pulitzer's New York World and William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal exaggerated and fabricated stories of Spanish atrocities in Cuba. This "yellow journalism" stirred public opinion and increased calls for U.S. intervention. De Lôme Letter (1898): The publication of a letter by Spanish diplomat Dupuy de Lôme, which criticized President McKinley, sparked outrage in the U.S., as it was seen as an insult to national honor. Sinking of the Maine: The explosion of the U.S. battleship Maine in Havana Harbor on February 15, 1898, killing 260 Americans, was blamed on Spain by the yellow press, further inflaming public opinion, although later investigations suggested it was an accident. McKinley’s War Message President McKinley, pressured by public opinion and the media, sent a war message to Congress in April 1898, citing humanitarian concerns, the protection of U.S. citizens, economic interests, and the need to restore peace in Cuba as reasons for intervention. Teller Amendment The Teller Amendment, passed by Congress in 1898, declared that the United States had no intention of taking political control of Cuba and that the Cuban people would control their own government once peace was restored. 156 7.3 - The Spanish-American War and Foreign Policy Peace Treaty and U.S. Gains The Treaty of Paris, signed on December 10, 1898, ended the Spanish-American War. The U.S. gained recognition of Cuban independence, acquired Puerto Rico and Guam, and took control of the Philippines in exchange for a $20 million payment to Spain. This expansion marked a significant shift in U.S. foreign policy toward imperialism. Philippine Situation The U.S. took control of the Philippines after defeating Spain, but faced strong resistance from Filipino nationalists led by Emilio Aguinaldo, who had initially allied with the U.S. The resulting Philippine-American War lasted three years and led to significant casualties on both sides. In the U.S., the annexation sparked a heated debate in Congress and among the public, centering on issues of imperialism and the moral implications of ruling a large population with a distinct culture. Critics argued that annexing the Philippines contradicted the foundational American principles of self-governance and liberty. Cuba and the Platt Amendment The Platt Amendment, added to Cuba's constitution in 1901, made Cuba a U.S. protectorate. It required Cuba to avoid treaties that compromised its independence, allowed U.S. intervention to maintain order, and granted the U.S. a naval base at Guantanamo Bay. Election of 1900 President McKinley, with Theodore Roosevelt as his running mate, won re-election in 1900, defeating William Jennings Bryan, who opposed imperialism. The victory reflected public support for McKinley's policies, including the gold standard and the acquisition of overseas territories. However, McKinley would get assassinated, leaving Roosevelt in charge of the presidency. Open Door Policy The Open Door Policy, proposed by Secretary of State John Hay in 1899, aimed to ensure equal trading rights for all nations in China, preventing any one power from dominating the Chinese market. This policy was a key element of U.S. efforts to expand its influence in Asia without direct territorial control. 157 7.3 - The Spanish-American War and Foreign Policy Roosevelt's "Big Stick" Policy Theodore Roosevelt's "Big Stick" foreign policy emphasized military strength and readiness to assert U.S. dominance internationally, epitomized by his saying, "speak softly and carry a big stick." This approach aimed to enhance the U.S. as a formidable global power, using military might to achieve diplomatic objectives, particularly in the Western Hemisphere. The Panama Canal and the Revolution Roosevelt played a pivotal role in the construction of the Panama Canal, essential for connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Frustrated by Colombia's hesitance, Roosevelt supported a local uprising leading to Panama's independence in 1903. The new Panamanian government then signed the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty, granting the U.S. control over the Canal Zone. This strategic maneuver enabled the canal's completion in 1914, boosting U.S. naval and commercial power significantly. Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine The Roosevelt Corollary extended the Monroe Doctrine, asserting U.S. intervention in European-Latin American conflicts to enforce claims, rather than allowing direct European enforcement. This policy positioned the U.S. as a policing power in Latin America, justifying numerous interventions to prevent European interference and stabilize the region economically. Great White Fleet The deployment of the Great White Fleet from 1907 to 1909 demonstrated burgeoning American naval power, with a fleet of U.S. Navy ships touring globally. The mission aimed to assert U.S. naval strength and support international respect as a rising global power. 158 7.3 - The Spanish-American War and Foreign Policy Gentlemen's Agreement The Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907, an informal U.S.-Japan agreement, restricted Japanese immigration to the U.S. in exchange for American forbearance on imposing official immigration restrictions. This agreement aimed to reduce tensions by controlling Japanese migration to the U.S. Taft's Dollar Diplomacy Taft's "Dollar Diplomacy" encouraged U.S. financial investment abroad, especially in Latin America and East Asia, to enhance U.S. influence and defer military interventions. It aimed to replace military action with economic power, promoting American financial investments to stabilize economies and deter foreign threats. Wilson's Moral Diplomacy Woodrow Wilson's "Moral Diplomacy" promoted democracy and peace, opposing imperialistic strategies of previous administrations. This policy supported democratic governments worldwide and aimed to spread American moral values in foreign affairs. Philippines and the Jones Act The Jones Act of 1916 granted the Philippines full territorial status, universal male suffrage, and promised future independence, reflecting Wilson's push for self-governance and anti-imperialism. Panama Canal Tolls Wilson advocated for equal Panama Canal tolls for all nations, including the U.S., to promote fair trade practices and reduce international discord, particularly appeasing British concerns. 159 7.4 - The Progressives Origins of Progressivism As the 20th century began, rapid industrialization led to significant societal shifts, unsettling many in the U.S. This era saw growing concerns about big business power, economic disparities, and political corruption. Middle-class Americans, disturbed by these changes and inspired by the possibilities of reform, spearheaded the Progressive movement, advocating for a larger governmental role in addressing such issues. Who Were the Progressives? Progressives were a diverse group including Protestant church leaders, African Americans, union leaders, and feminists, united by the belief in the need for government-driven reform. Progressive Philosophy and Pragmatism Progressives embraced the philosophy of pragmatism, arguing that truth should be tested by its practical outcomes. This approach supported their advocacy for reforms to enhance democracy and address economic and social injustices. Influenced by the pragmatism of William James and John Dewey, Progressives challenged existing beliefs like laissez-faire capitalism, promoting reforms based on practicality and efficiency. Muckrakers Muckrakers were journalists who exposed societal issues, from corrupt politics to poor working conditions, through in-depth reporting. This term, popularized by President Theodore Roosevelt, described writers who "raked up" and exposed societal muck. Although the prominence of muckraking declined after 1910 due to pressures from publishers and advertisers, its impact on raising public awareness and prompting reform was profound. Decline of Muckraking The decline of muckraking journalism was due to its increasing challenge in maintaining sensationalism, pressures from advertisers, and the rising influence of corporate public relations. 160 7.4 - The Progressives Political Reforms Secret Ballot: Adopted from Australia, this reform aimed to ensure voter privacy and reduce electoral manipulation by allowing voters to make choices secretly. Direct Primaries: Introduced to reduce corruption by allowing party members to choose their candidates directly, thereby weakening party bosses' control. Direct Election of U.S. Senators (17th Amendment): The adoption of the 17th Amendment in 1913 marked a significant shift in the electoral process for U.S. Senators. Previously, senators were elected by state legislatures, a practice that had become mired in corruption and partisanship, often stalling the legislative process. Public outcry over these issues fueled the demand for reform. The 17th Amendment, therefore, established the direct election of senators by the voters of each state, aiming to increase government accountability and reduce corruption by giving the power directly to the people. This change was a crucial step toward enhancing democratic governance and ensuring that senators would be more responsive to the needs and opinions of their constituents, rather than the political intrigues of state legislatures. Temperance and Prohibition: The movement to prohibit alcohol gained momentum in the early 20th century, driven by concerns over alcohol's negative effects on society, including domestic violence and workplace accidents. Reformers, often aligned with religious groups, pushed for laws to ban the production and sale of alcohol, leading to the adoption of the 18th Amendment in 1920, which established Prohibition. Social Welfare: Progressives aimed to address urban poverty and improve living conditions through various social welfare programs. Efforts included establishing public health services, promoting education, and improving housing standards to create safer, more livable urban environments. 161 7.4 - The Progressives Child and Women Labor: The exploitation of children and women in factories became a focal point for reformers, who pushed for laws to limit working hours and improve working conditions. The landmark case of Muller v. Oregon (1908) successfully argued for limits on women's working hours based on their supposed physical weakness, reflecting the era's prevailing attitudes toward gender. Court Case (Muller v. Oregon): This Supreme Court decision upheld the constitutionality of laws protecting female workers by restricting their working hours, marking a significant victory for labor reform but also entrenching gender discrimination in labor laws. Theodore Roosevelt: Roosevelt ascended to the presidency in 1901 and introduced his "Square Deal" as his comprehensive domestic policy. This approach, characterized by the "three C's" (control of corporations, consumer protection, and conservation of natural resources), aimed to address the broad needs of the middle class while curbing the power of large corporations and protecting the environment. Roosevelt's Square Deal for Labor: This policy sought fair treatment for all American citizens. A crucial application was the resolution of the 1902 coal strike, where Roosevelt mediated between miners and owners, leading to a compromise that averted a national energy crisis. This intervention was significant as it was one of the first times a U.S. President took an active role in resolving a labor dispute, marking a shift in governmental approach to labor issues. ○ Coal Mining Situation: During the 1902 coal strike in Pennsylvania, Roosevelt called both sides to the White House to negotiate a deal, effectively using his presidential influence to ensure a fair settlement. This intervention not only facilitated a 10% wage increase and a nine-hour workday for the miners but also set a precedent for federal involvement in labor disputes. Trust Busting: Roosevelt's administration was known for its aggressive stance against monopolistic corporations. He notably went after the Standard Oil Company, using the Sherman Antitrust Act to file a lawsuit that eventually led to its breakup in 1911. This action was a cornerstone of his efforts to regulate "bad trusts" that harmed the public and stifled competition. 162 7.4 - The Progressives Railroad Regulation: ○ Elkins Act (1903): This act specifically targeted the practice of railroads offering rebates to favored customers. It strengthened the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) by prohibiting discriminatory rebates and ensured all customers paid the same rates for shipping. ○ Hepburn Act (1906): This legislation supported the ICC further by allowing it to set maximum railroad rates and extend its oversight to include bridges, terminals, and ferries. It marked a significant expansion of federal regulatory authority over the railroad industry. The Jungle and Food Safety: ○ Pure Food and Drug Act (1906): Prompted by the public outcry following Upton Sinclair’s exposé of the meatpacking industry (The Jungle), this act prohibited the sale of adulterated or mislabeled food and drugs, leading to the creation of the Food and Drug Administration. ○ Meat Inspection Act (1906): This act required that meat processing plants engage in sanitary practices and allowed for federal inspection of all meat sold through interstate commerce, ensuring that the products were processed under sanitary conditions. Conservation Efforts: Roosevelt was an avid conservationist, advocating for the preservation of natural resources. His efforts included the Newlands Reclamation Act, which funded irrigation projects for arid lands, and the establishment of numerous national parks and forests. William Taft: Succeeding Roosevelt, Taft continued many progressive policies but faced criticism from progressives for his cautious approach and was seen as less aggressive in pursuing reform. Mann-Elkins Act (1910): This act extended the ICC’s authority to telephone and telegraph companies, further increasing federal regulatory powers. 16th Amendment: Ratified in 1913, this amendment allowed the federal government to impose a graduated income tax, increasing revenue and redistributing wealth more evenly. Election of 1912: This pivotal election featured a split in the Republican Party between Roosevelt and Taft, allowing Democrat Woodrow Wilson to win the presidency with a platform that emphasized individualism and states' rights, contrasting with Roosevelt's more interventionist policies. 163 7.4 - The Progressives Woodrow Wilson's Progressive Program: President Woodrow Wilson advocated a comprehensive program called the "New Freedom," aimed at dismantling what he called the "triple wall of privilege": tariffs, banks, and trusts. His agenda focused on reducing economic restrictions to promote free and fair competition, thereby enhancing American democracy and economic opportunity. Tariff Reduction (Underwood Tariff): Wilson called a special session of Congress at the beginning of his presidency to address tariff reform, resulting in the passage of the Underwood Tariff in 1913. This act significantly reduced tariffs for the first time in over fifty years, easing the tariff burden on average Americans and compensating for lost revenue with a graduated income tax. Federal Reserve System (Federal Reserve Act): The Federal Reserve Act of 1914 established the Federal Reserve System, introducing a central banking structure with 12 district banks controlled by a Federal Reserve Board. This system was designed to stabilize the U.S. financial system by adjusting interest rates, overseeing monetary policy, and regulating the banking industry. Additional Economic Reforms: ○ Federal Trade Commission: Created to protect consumers and prevent anti-competitive business practices. It was created to investigate and take action against unfair trade practices in nearly all industries. ○ Clayton Antitrust Act: This act strengthened the provisions of the Sherman Antitrust Act, specifically clarifying and expanding the government's powers to prevent monopolies and certain anti-competitive practices. Notably, it exempted labor unions from being treated as illegal combinations in restraint of trade. ○ Federal Farm Loan Act: Passed to provide farmers with access to low-interest loans, aiming to boost the agricultural sector by establishing federal farm loan banks. ○ Child Labor Act: Enacted in 1916, this law prohibited the sale of products manufactured by children under the age of 14, addressing child labor issues by regulating interstate commerce. However, it was later struck down by the Supreme Court. 164 7.4 - The Progressives African Americans in the Progressive Era The Progressive Era largely overlooked the racial inequalities and segregation prevalent at the time. Influential African American leaders like Booker T. Washington advocated for economic self-reliance and vocational training as a strategy to improve the social and economic status of African Americans, whereas W.E.B. Du Bois pushed for immediate civil rights and political representation. Booker T. Washington: Emphasized economic self-help and vocational education for African Americans to improve their status in society. W.E.B. Du Bois: Advocated for immediate civil rights and political participation, showing the necessity for African Americans to have equal rights in order to advance economically. NAACP and National Urban League The NAACP, founded in 1909, aimed to fight for the rights of African Americans through legal challenges against segregation and discrimination. The National Urban League, established in 1911, focused on helping African Americans transition to urban life and secure economic self-reliance. Women's Suffrage The struggle for women's suffrage saw major organizations like NAWSA and the more radical National Woman's Party, led by Alice Paul, push for voting rights through various strategies, including advocating for a constitutional amendment. Nineteenth Amendment: Ratified in 1920, this amendment marked a pivotal victory in the women's suffrage movement by prohibiting any U.S. citizen from being denied the right to vote on the basis of sex. The dedicated efforts of women on the home front during World War I were instrumental in achieving this milestone, demonstrating their indispensable role in society and strengthening the case for their voting rights. 165 7.5 - World War I: Military and Diplomacy Woodrow Wilson's Neutrality Declaration At the outbreak of World War I, President Woodrow Wilson declared the United States neutral, emphasizing America's commitment to peace and reflecting the non-interventionist advice of past presidents like Washington and Jefferson. Despite his desire for neutrality, Wilson faced challenges in maintaining an impartial stance while safeguarding American interests and trade rights. Freedom of the Seas The concept of "freedom of the seas" was pivotal during World War I. Wilson insisted that neutral nations, like the U.S., should be allowed to trade with belligerent countries without hostile interference. This principle was tested by Britain's naval blockade and Germany's counter with unrestricted submarine warfare, complicating U.S. neutrality. Submarine Warfare Germany's reliance on submarine warfare, announced in 1915, marked a critical point in naval strategy, threatening neutral shipping and challenging international law. This aggressive tactic aimed to counteract British naval dominance and block supplies to the Allies, significantly escalating tensions with neutral nations. Lusitania Sinking The sinking of the Lusitania in 1915 by a German U-boat, resulting in the deaths of 1,198 passengers, including 128 Americans, provoked a major diplomatic crisis. President Wilson responded with stern warnings to Germany, emphasizing that further unrestricted submarine aggression would lead to severe consequences, thus straining U.S. neutrality. Economic Ties with Britain and France Though officially neutral, the U.S. developed strong economic bonds with the Allies, significantly influenced by shared financial interests and cultural ties. Despite Wilson's efforts to remain impartial, American trade with the Allies flourished, effectively supporting their war effort against the Central Powers. The U.S. economy was closely linked to the Allies, with trade quadrupling and extensive loans made to Britain and France, which further complicated claims of neutrality. These financial relationships not only bolstered the Allied war effort but also entwined the U.S. economy with their fortunes, laying the groundwork for potential conflict involvement. 166 7.5 - World War I: Military and Diplomacy Public Opinion and Propaganda Public opinion in the U.S. was heavily swayed by British propaganda, which depicted Germany negatively, influencing American perceptions and aligning public sentiment more closely with the Allies. This atmosphere made it increasingly difficult for Wilson to maintain a stance of true neutrality. War Debate: Preparedness vs. Opposition The debate over U.S. preparedness showed increasing concerns about national security, leading Wilson to eventually support strengthening military capabilities. Advocates for preparedness argued that the U.S. needed to build up its military to protect itself and possibly aid the Allies. On the other hand, opposition from various groups, including Progressives, Socialists, and pacifists, reflected continued isolationist sentiment, fearing that preparing for war would inevitably lead to U.S. involvement in the conflict. Decision for War Unrestricted Submarine Warfare: The pivotal factor pushing the U.S. towards war was Germany's resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare in January 1917. Germany declared that all ships heading to Britain would be targeted, calculating that they could force Britain to surrender before the U.S. could effectively respond, despite the risk of drawing the U.S. into the war. Immediate Causes: Zimmermann Telegram: In March 1917, the U.S. public was outraged by the Zimmermann Telegram, in which Germany proposed a military alliance with Mexico against the U.S. if the U.S. entered the war. This revelation was a direct challenge to U.S. sovereignty and a catalyst for moving toward war. Renewed Submarine Attacks: Shortly after, Germany's submarines sank several American merchant ships. These attacks on unarmed vessels violated previous pledges by Germany and made U.S. involvement seem unavoidable. Declaration of War: In response to these provocations, President Wilson asked Congress to declare war against Germany on April 2, 1917. He argued that the world must be made safe for democracy and emphasized the need to protect the freedom of the seas. Congress supported his request, and the U.S. formally entered World War I on April 6, 1917. 167 7.5 - World War I: Military and Diplomacy Making Peace Peace Without Victory: Early in the war, Wilson advocated for a "peace without victory," believing that a just peace would promote democracy and self-determination. He thought that only a peace agreement that did not humiliate the defeated nations could ensure lasting peace. Wilson's Fourteen Points: Wilson outlined his vision for post-war peace in the Fourteen Points, presented in 1918. These points called for transparent agreements, freedom of navigation, reduction of arms, and the self-determination of peoples. Crucially, they proposed the creation of a League of Nations to ensure peace and prevent future conflicts. Treaty of Versailles: The Treaty, signed in June 1919, was a mixed realization of Wilson's goals. It imposed harsh penalties on Germany, including significant reparations, territorial losses, and military restrictions. However, it also incorporated self-determination and the League of Nations, aimed at maintaining peace through collective security and diplomatic efforts. The inclusion of the League was a personal triumph for Wilson, but the treaty's punitive aspects sowed seeds of future unrest. Will the United States ratify the Treaty of Versailles? Senate Approval: President Wilson faced the challenge of securing Senate approval for the Treaty of Versailles, particularly the League of Nations section. Gaining the necessary two-thirds majority was complicated by strong opposition, especially concerning Article X, which critics argued could undermine U.S. sovereignty and force the U.S. into foreign conflicts. Increased Partisanship: The political atmosphere was charged with partisanship. Wilson's call for voters to elect Democrats during the 1918 midterm elections backfired, leading to a Republican-controlled Senate. This shift made ratification even more challenging, with key figures like Republican Senator Henry Cabot Lodge leading the opposition. 168 7.5 - World War I: Military and Diplomacy Opposition to the Treaty: The Senate opposition was divided into two main groups: the Irreconcilables, who opposed U.S. membership in the League under any circumstances, and the Reservationists, led by Henry Cabot Lodge, who demanded significant changes to the covenant. Despite these divisions, Wilson opted to fight for the treaty without amendments. Rejection of the Treaty: The Senate ultimately rejected the Treaty of Versailles. Lodge and other Republicans were particularly concerned that joining the League of Nations would prevent the U.S. from ever acting independently in foreign policy again, thus binding America to international decisions without unilateral discretion. This defeat marked a significant setback for Wilson's vision of international cooperation and collective security through the League. 169 7.6 - World War I: Home Front U.S. Mobilization for World War I Mobilization Overview: As World War I escalated, the U.S. rapidly mobilized its resources to support the war effort. The government established several agencies to regulate industries and resources, ensuring efficient contribution to the war. Herbert Hoover and Food Administration: Herbert Hoover led the Food Administration, promoting voluntary conservation among American households. Efforts to conserve food proved successful, significantly increasing food shipments to the Allies. Railroad Administration: Under Secretary William McAdoo, the Railroad Administration took control of the railroads to ensure efficient transport of troops and materials, standardizing railroad equipment and traffic. National War Labor Board: This board, led by former President William Howard Taft, resolved labor disputes and improved conditions for workers, leading to higher wages, shorter workdays, and increased union membership. Public Opinion Management: The U.S. government actively managed public opinion through propaganda, ensuring widespread support for the war effort. This was spearheaded by the Committee on Public Information, which utilized media to support national unity and vigilance against perceived enemies. Finance During Wilson's Administration: Raising Funds: To finance World War I, Wilson's administration raised $33 billion over two years. Liberty Bonds: ○ The government launched four massive drives to promote Liberty Bonds, encouraging Americans to invest their savings in support of the war effort. ○ Liberty Bonds were government-issued bonds that provided citizens with a secure investment while simultaneously funding military operations. 170 7.6 - World War I: Home Front Civil Liberties During WWI Espionage and Sedition Acts: The Espionage Act of 1917 was enacted to prohibit interference with military operations or recruitment, to prevent insubordination in the military, and to prevent the support of U.S. enemies during wartime. It imposed harsh penalties for acts of espionage and for the refusal to perform military duties. The Sedition Act of 1918 expanded the scope of the Espionage Act to cover a broader range of offenses, notably speech and the expression of opinions that cast the government or the war effort in a negative light. This act made it a crime to utter, print, write, or publish any disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language about the form of the U.S. government. Schenck v. United States (1919): This Supreme Court case upheld the constitutionality of the Espionage Act in contexts where the defendant had circulated documents that urged resistance to the draft during World War I. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes formulated the famous "clear and present danger" test to determine when speech could be restricted. Holmes argued that speech that posed a clear and present danger to the country's recruitment efforts during wartime could be limited. The ruling effectively meant that the government could suppress or punish speech that it deemed dangerous during times of national emergency, setting a precedent that speech is not an absolute right under all circumstances. African Americans and the War Effort Role of African Americans: Nearly 400,000 African Americans served in segregated units during the war, with very few allowed to be officers. Despite facing severe discrimination, their participation showed the contradictions of fighting for democracy abroad while being denied rights at home. 171 7.6 - World War I: Home Front Effects on American Society Jobs for Women: The war opened up new employment opportunities for women as they filled roles vacated by men who went to fight. This significant contribution to the war effort helped garner support for the passage of the 19th Amendment, granting women the right to vote. Great Migration: The war also accelerated the Great Migration, with approximately 1 million African Americans moving from the South to northern cities for better job opportunities and to escape racial violence and economic hardships, reshaping the demographic landscape of the U.S. Postwar Problems Red Scare: The Red Scare in 1919 was fueled by fears of communism, especially after the communist takeover in Russia. It sparked widespread xenophobia and led to restrictive immigration policies in the 1920s. This period was marked by intense anti-Communist and anti-immigrant sentiments. Palmer Raids: Initiated by Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer after unexplained bombings, the Palmer Raids involved mass arrests of anarchists, socialists, and labor agitators from November 1919 to January 1920. Over 6,000 arrests were made with minimal criminal evidence, and 500 foreigners were deported, including the radical activist Emma Goldman. These actions quickly lost public support as fears subsided and concerns over civil liberties grew. 172 7.7 - 1920s: Innovations in Communication and Technology The Roaring Twenties: Economic Prosperity and Increased Standard of Living Introduction to the Era The 1920s, often called the "Roaring Twenties," was a period of significant economic growth and social change. Following a brief postwar recession, the U.S. experienced a boom that lasted until the end of the decade, characterized by a rise in the standard of living, advancements in technology, and cultural shifts. Causes of Economic Prosperity The economic boom was driven by a 64% rise in manufacturing output from 1919 to 1929, significantly influenced by increased productivity and technological innovations like the assembly line. The efficient mass production methods, pioneered by Henry Ford for automobiles, revolutionized various industries, enhancing worker productivity. Increased Productivity and the Assembly Line The assembly line, perfected by Ford in 1914, minimized the movement of factory workers, allowing them to perform repetitive tasks quickly. This innovation was widely adopted across major industries in the 1920s, leading to substantial gains in productivity. Energy Technology The shift towards oil and electricity further fueled economic growth. Oil began powering factories and vehicles, while electricity expanded into homes and industries, increasing electrical generation by over 300% during the decade. Government Policy The federal government's laissez-faire approach facilitated economic expansion. It provided corporate tax cuts and relaxed enforcement of antitrust laws, supporting an environment conducive to business growth and market speculation. 173 7.7 - 1920s: Innovations in Communication and Technology Consumer Economy The adoption of electricity in homes spurred the purchase of consumer appliances like refrigerators and washing machines. Automobile affordability transformed personal transportation, and the introduction of buying on credit expanded consumer purchasing power but later contributed to economic instability. Impact of the Automobile Automobiles dramatically altered American society, boosting industries like steel, rubber, and gasoline, and changing everyday life in terms of commuting, leisure, and social interactions. However, it also introduced challenges such as traffic congestion and societal concerns over youth independence. Farm Problems Despite the economic boom, farmers faced declining prosperity. Prices for crops fell due to overproduction, exacerbated by technological advances that increased yield but not profitability, setting the stage for economic difficulties in rural America. Labor Union Struggles Although wages rose, union membership declined by 20% due to the prevalent "open shop" policies and corporate strategies like welfare capitalism, which aimed to undermine unionization efforts. Technology and Culture The decade saw significant changes in mass media and entertainment: ○ Architecture: Influenced by Art Deco, new building designs integrated modernist styles with new materials. ○ Mass Media: Radio emerged as a powerful medium, joining newspapers in shaping public opinion and culture. ○ Popular Music: Jazz, brought north by African American musicians, symbolized modern urban culture, while other genres also gained popularity through radio and phonographs. 174 7.8 - 1920s: Cultural and Political Controversies Modernism Modernism was an intellectual movement among urban-based Protestants who embraced scientific knowledge and social theories. Influenced by the Social Gospel movement and shifts in societal roles, modernists sought to reconcile religious faith with contemporary ideas like Darwin's theory of evolution. They advocated for a historical and less literal interpretation of the Bible, aiming to harmonize it with modern understanding. Fundamentalism: Fundamentalism was rooted in rural, conservative Protestant communities that insisted on a literal interpretation of the Bible. Fundamentalists opposed modern scientific theories such as evolution, viewing them as threats to moral and spiritual integrity. This group blamed the erosion of traditional values and societal decay on modernist influences. Revivalists on Radio The 1920s saw the rise of radio revivalists who spread their fundamentalist messages via this new mass communication tool. Figures like Billy Sunday and Aimee Semple McPherson attacked perceived moral declines associated with modern urban culture, including jazz music and communism. Scopes Trial: The Scopes Trial in 1925 showed the clash between modernists and fundamentalists, with John Scopes charged for teaching evolution, violating Tennessee state law. Prominent figures like Clarence Darrow and William Jennings Bryan represented the opposing sides, symbolizing the broader cultural battle over science and religion. Aftermath of the Scopes Trial Scopes was convicted, though the verdict was overturned on a technicality. The trial symbolized the cultural battles of the era and showed ongoing tensions over educational content. 175 7.8 - 1920s: Cultural and Political Controversies Prohibition and the Volstead Act The 18th Amendment and the Volstead Act marked the start of Prohibition, which outlawed the manufacture, sale, and transport of alcohol. Intended to improve public morals, Prohibition led to widespread defiance, with speakeasies and bootlegging becoming rampant. Defying Prohibition Public defiance was widespread, and the illegal alcohol market thrived, particularly in urban areas. Organized crime figures like Al Capone profited immensely from the illegal alcohol trade, showing the challenges of enforcing moral behavior through legislation. Political Discord and the 21st Amendment Prohibition led to significant political discord, with Republicans largely supporting it while Democrats were divided. The economic pressures of the Great Depression and growing public resentment led to the repeal of Prohibition with the 21st Amendment in 1933. Opposition to Immigration and Quota Laws Post-war immigration triggered nativist sentiments, leading to restrictive quota laws that targeted "undesirable" immigrants from southern and eastern Europe and Asia. These laws reflected broader xenophobic and isolationist trends in American society. Revival of the Ku Klux Klan The 1920s saw a revival of the Ku Klux Klan, which expanded its targets to include Jews, Catholics, and immigrants, beyond its original focus on African Americans. At its peak, the Klan claimed millions of members and exerted significant political influence, but public exposure of its criminal activities led to its decline by the late 1920s. 176 7.8 - 1920s: Cultural and Political Controversies Women at Home Despite the ratification of the 19th Amendment, women’s roles largely remained centered around homemaking and motherhood. Introduction of labor-saving appliances like washing machines and vacuum cleaners eased daily chores but did not alter the traditional gender roles significantly. Women’s domestic life continued to revolve around family care, with societal expectations maintaining the status quo of women as primary caregivers. Women in the Labor Force Employment rates for women remained consistent with pre-war levels, with many working in roles traditionally seen as suitable for women, such as clerical work, nursing, teaching, and domestic jobs. Women faced wage disparities, earning significantly less than men for similar roles, reflecting broader societal views on gender and work. Urban environments offered more employment opportunities for women, although these jobs often lacked long-term career prospects. Revolution in Morals The 1920s marked a noticeable shift in social and sexual norms, particularly among younger generations who challenged traditional taboos. Influenced by Freud’s theories on sexuality and repression, many young people embraced more liberal attitudes towards premarital sex. The era saw changes in fashion and social behaviors, exemplified by the emergence of the flapper culture, where young women adopted more revealing fashions and engaged in behaviors previously considered inappropriate, like smoking and driving cars. 177 7.8 - 1920s: Cultural and Political Controversies Education The 1920s experienced a surge in educational enrollment, driven by a growing societal belief in the value of education and economic prosperity that allowed for greater public investment in schools. Compulsory education laws were more widely enacted, pushing towards universal high school education as a new national goal. By the end of the decade, high school graduation rates had doubled, reflecting the success of these educational policies. African American Cultural Renaissance Harlem Renaissance The Harlem Renaissance marked a flourishing of African American culture, particularly in the Harlem neighborhood of New York City. This cultural movement was characterized by an explosion of poetry, music, and art that explored African American identity and experience. Notable figures such as Langston Hughes and Duke Ellington emerged during this period, gaining national recognition for their contributions to American culture. Cultural Impact and Challenges Despite facing ongoing discrimination and segregation, African American artists and musicians of the Harlem Renaissance played a critical role in shaping the cultural landscape of the 1920s. Jazz music, introduced by artists like Louis Armstrong, became a defining feature of the period, popular among both black and white audiences. The period also saw a greater public acknowledgment of African American contributions to literature, art, and music, though this did not necessarily translate into broader social acceptance or rights. 178 7.8 - 1920s: Cultural and Political Controversies Republican Dominance The 1920s were marked by Republican control of both the presidency and Congress, influencing national policies towards pro-business and conservative fiscal agendas. This political landscape facilitated a period of economic growth, with limited government intervention in business as a hallmark of the era. Warren Harding’s Presidency Background: Warren Harding, known for his charismatic presence but considered less capable as a leader, became president in 1921 after being nominated as a compromise candidate by the Republican party. Teapot Dome Scandal: One of the most infamous scandals of his administration was the Teapot Dome scandal. This involved Secretary of the Interior Albert B. Fall, who illegally leased naval oil reserve lands at Teapot Dome, Wyoming, and two other locations in California, to private oil companies at low rates without competitive bidding. Impact of Scandal: The scandal tarnished Harding’s administration, revealing deep-seated corruption and resulting in the first-ever conviction of a Presidential Cabinet member. Calvin Coolidge’s Presidency Economic Policies: Coolidge’s presidency was marked by a strong commitment to laissez-faire economics, minimal government intervention, and tax cuts. His administration is often credited with extending the economic prosperity of the 1920s. Vetoes and Inaction: True to his belief in limited government, Coolidge vetoed numerous bills that would have increased government spending, including those offering benefits to farmers and bonuses to World War I veterans, reflecting his policy of economic non-intervention (return to laissez-faire.) Herbert Hoover’s Presidency Introduction to Presidency: Hoover was known as a capable administrator and was secretary of commerce before his presidency. He promised to continue the economic policies of his predecessors but soon faced the Great Depression. Election of 1928: Hoover won the presidency with a campaign that emphasized continued prosperity. His victory represented a public endorsement of ongoing Republican economic policies at the time. 179 7.9 - The Great Depression Causes of the 1929 Crash Wall Street Crash: The business boom of the 1920s, marked by rising stock prices, collapsed dramatically in October 1929. The Dow Jones reached an all-time high in September 1929 but then plummeted, leading to massive financial losses for millions of investors. Black Thursday and Black Tuesday: The stock market panic began on Black Thursday, October 24, 1929, with a massive sell-off. Attempts by bankers to stabilize the market failed, and on Black Tuesday, October 29, stock prices collapsed completely, as sellers vastly outnumbered buyers. Underlying Causes of the Great Depression Uneven Distribution of Income: Economic gains were not evenly shared during the 1920s. The wealthiest 5% of Americans earned over 33% of all income, leading to reduced consumer spending and contributing to economic decline as businesses started to cut jobs. Stock Market Speculation: Many people speculated on stock prices rising without investing in the actual value of businesses. The widespread practice of buying on margin meant that when stock prices fell, many faced financial ruin. Excessive Use of Credit: Low interest rates and optimistic beliefs about continual economic growth led to increased borrowing and spending. This over-reliance on credit eventually resulted in loan defaults and bank failures. Overproduction of Consumer Goods: Businesses produced goods at a rate that exceeded the purchasing power of consumers with stagnant wages, leading to a surplus of products and financial strain on companies. Weak Farm Economy: Farmers had not shared in the 1920s prosperity and faced ongoing issues such as overproduction, high debt, and low prices, exacerbated by severe weather and droughts during the 1930s. Government Policies: Lax government regulation in the 1920s and high tariffs hindered international trade and placed additional pressures on the economy. The Federal Reserve’s policies to maintain the gold standard rather than stabilizing the economy also contributed to the crisis. Global Economic Problems: The interconnected global economy was fragile, with Europe still reeling from World War I. The U.S. policies demanding repayment of war loans and maintaining high tariffs worsened the global economic situation. 180 7.9 - The Great Depression Effects of the Great Depression Economic Impact: The U.S. gross national product halved from $104 billion to $56 billion between 1929 and 1932, reflecting a severe economic contraction. Over 50% of the nation's income was lost, and around 20% of all banks failed, erasing 10 million savings accounts. Social Impact: Unemployment soared to 25% by 1933, affecting 13 million workers, not counting farmers. The widespread poverty and unemployment led to increased homelessness, family stress, and urban migration in search of jobs. Shantytowns, known as “Hoovervilles,” became common as the homeless sought shelter. President Hoover’s Policies Initial Response: Hoover initially advocated for voluntary action, urging businesses not to cut wages and unions not to strike, while relying on private charities to help the needy. He was reluctant to involve the federal government, fearing it would undermine individual self-reliance. Shift in Policy: As the Depression worsened, Hoover recognized the need for more direct government intervention but insisted that aid should come from state and local levels, not the federal government. Hawley-Smoot Tariff (1930) Impact on Trade: This tariff, which was the highest in history, significantly raised duties on foreign imports to protect U.S. industries but led to retaliatory tariffs from European countries. This exacerbated the global economic downturn by sharply reducing international trade. Domestic Programs Federal Farm Board: Originally established before the crash, it was intended to help farmers by storing surplus crops. However, the program was too modest to significantly impact the vast overproduction issues in agriculture. Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC): Founded in early 1932, the RFC aimed to stabilize critical sectors like banking and railroads through emergency loans. The hope was that stabilizing large businesses would indirectly support smaller ones, although critics argued it mainly benefited the wealthy. “Trickle down economics”, giving money to big business will eventually trickle down. 181 7.10 - The New Deal The Election of 1932: Candidates and Campaigns: During the peak of the Great Depression, the Republicans nominated President Hoover, who believed that a Democratic victory would worsen the economic situation. On the other hand, the Democrats nominated Franklin D. Roosevelt, who promised a "new deal," the repeal of Prohibition, aid for the unemployed, and reduced government spending. Election Results: The primary issue for voters was the ongoing depression. Roosevelt won the election decisively, capturing all but six states, with nearly 60% of the popular vote, signaling a significant shift towards Democratic leadership in both the presidency and Congress. Franklin D. Roosevelt as President: Background and Influence: FDR, related to former President Theodore Roosevelt, significantly expanded the role and size of the federal government and was a dominant figure in American politics for over a decade. Policy Approach and Impact: His presidency marked a substantial shift in government operations and presidential power, making him a pivotal figure in 20th-century global politics. The New Deal Philosophy Foundations: Franklin D. Roosevelt did not have a detailed plan to end the Depression in his 1932 campaign but was committed to action, aiming to experiment with solutions to economic issues. Three R's: Roosevelt's New Deal focused on three main objectives: relief for the unemployed, recovery for the economy, and reform of economic institutions, targeting the "forgotten man" at the bottom of the economic pyramid. Advisory and Administrative Support Brain Trust: Roosevelt relied on a group of university professors and former advisors from his tenure as Governor of New York to shape the New Deal. Diverse Appointments: His administration was noted for its diversity, with significant appointments of African Americans, Catholics, Jews, and women, including Frances Perkins, the first female cabinet member. 182 7.10 - The New Deal Bank Holiday Bank Failures and Response: In early 1933, due to massive withdrawals and failing banks, President Roosevelt declared a "bank holiday" on March 6, closing banks temporarily to stabilize them. Over 5,000 banks had failed by this point, matching the total failures of the previous years combined. Emergency Banking Act: Roosevelt explained the situation in a radio broadcast and reassured the public. Congress passed the Emergency Banking Act on March 9, allowing banks to reopen on March 13 after reorganization. Repeal of Prohibition Legislative Actions: Roosevelt fulfilled his campaign promise by first passing the Beer-Wine Revenue Act, legalizing the sale of beer and wine to raise taxes. End of Prohibition: Later in 1933, the 21st Amendment was ratified, repealing the 18th Amendment and officially ending Prohibition. Fireside Chats First Fireside Chat: On March 12, 1933, Roosevelt conducted the first of many fireside chats (speaking to Americans on the radio), assuring Americans that the reopened banks were secure. Public Response: The public responded positively, depositing more money into the banks than was withdrawn, restoring some confidence in the financial system. Relief for the Unemployed Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA): Directed by Harry Hopkins, FERA provided federal funds to local governments for direct relief efforts, like soup kitchens, benefiting the jobless and homeless. Public Works Administration (PWA): Led by Harold Ickes, the PWA funded infrastructure projects like roads and bridges, generating thousands of jobs. Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC): The CCC provided employment to young men on conservation projects on federal land, offering financial aid to their families. Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA): A vast regional development project, the TVA employed many in the Tennessee Valley to build infrastructure like dams and power plants, significantly lowering electricity costs for the area. 183 7.10 - The New Deal Financial Recovery and Reform Programs Emergency Banking Relief Act: Allowed the government to inspect and reopen financially stable banks. Glass-Steagall Act: Increased banking regulations and restricted how banks could use customer deposits. Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC): Provided government insurance for bank deposits to ensure security for depositors. Farm Credit Administration: Extended low-interest loans and mortgages to farmers to prevent their land from being foreclosed. National Recovery Program National Recovery Administration (NRA): Aimed to stabilize industry by setting fair practices and labor standards, although it was later ruled unconstitutional. Farm Production Control Program Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA): Encouraged farmers to reduce crop production by to raise market prices, supported by government subsidies (paying them to not produce), but was also declared unconstitutional. Additional New Deal Programs Civil Works Administration (CWA): Created jobs through temporary construction projects funded by the federal government. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC): Established to regulate the stock market, requiring corporate transparency to protect investors. 184 7.10 - The New Deal The Second New Deal Works Progress Administration (WPA): This expansive agency provided jobs to millions from 1935 to 1940, funding large-scale public works projects and supporting unemployed artists and writers, significantly exceeding the scope of earlier relief programs. Other Key Programs and Reforms Resettlement Administration (RA): Led by Rexford Tugwell, a member of the Brain Trust, this program offered loans to small farmers and better living conditions for migrant workers. National Labor Relations (Wagner) Act: Replaced earlier labor laws with stronger protections, guaranteeing union rights and collective bargaining, overseen by the newly formed National Labor Relations Board (NLRB). Financial and Social Legislation Federal Taxes: The 1935 revenue act increased taxes on high incomes, large gifts, and capital gains, targeting the wealthy to fund New Deal programs. Social Security Act: Introduced in 1935, this act established a comprehensive social insurance system for retirees over 65, as well as unemployment and disability benefits, marking a profound change in the social safety net for Americans. The Election of 1936 Roosevelt's Popularity: President Roosevelt, buoyed by the success of his New Deal programs, which significantly appealed to workers and small farmers, was renominated by the Democrats. His regulatory and pro-union measures, however, made him less popular with the business community. Political Realignment: The election solidified a new coalition for the Democratic Party, which included the Solid South, urban ethnic groups, Midwestern farmers, labor unions, and liberals. Notably, many African Americans in northern cities shifted their support from the Republican Party to the Democrats, largely because of the New Deal’s impact. New Deal Coalition Legislative Success: Roosevelt’s ability to pass New Deal legislation rapidly was significantly supported by the "New Deal coalition" in Congress, which was composed of diverse groups that supported his agenda, ensuring cooperative and effective legislative action throughout his terms. 185 7.10 - The New Deal Challenges with the Supreme Court Initial Opposition: Early in his first term, Roosevelt faced significant challenges from the U.S. Supreme Court, which ruled key New Deal programs like the NRA and AAA unconstitutional. Court Reorganization Plan: After his reelection in 1936, Roosevelt proposed a plan to appoint additional justices to the Supreme Court, aiming to overcome conservative opposition. This plan was widely criticized and ultimately defeated in Congress. Subsequent Developments: Ironically, the Supreme Court began upholding New Deal legislation such as the Wagner Act and Social Security Act, and Roosevelt later appointed more sympathetic justices following retirements. Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 Labor Protections: Established minimum wage, a standard workweek with overtime pay, and restrictions on child labor, marking a significant victory for labor rights. Supreme Court Reversal: In 1941, the Supreme Court upheld the child labor provisions of the act, reversing earlier decisions. Social Conditions During the Depression Economic and Psychological Impact: Many Americans developed a lasting "depression mentality" due to the continued hardships of the 1930s. Dust Bowl: Severe droughts created the Dust Bowl in the Great Plains, leading to significant migration and economic hardship, famously depicted in John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath. Role of Women: Women faced increased pressures and opportunities in the workforce, though they often received lower wages than men despite advocacy from figures like Eleanor Roosevelt. African Americans: Racial discrimination intensified economic disparities for African Americans, who faced higher unemployment and were often excluded from relief programs. Note: New Deal is often criticized for not being an equal opportunity for all. 186 7.10 - The New Deal Limitations of the New Deal in Ending the Depression Economic Shortcomings: While the New Deal introduced significant reforms and relief measures, it did not fully pull the United States out of the Great Depression. The economy showed signs of improvement but remained unstable and weak, lacking the robustness needed for a full recovery. Political Resistance: By 1937, the New Deal faced increased opposition from a coalition of Republicans and conservative Democrats, who blocked further reform legislation. This resistance, combined with a reduced Democratic majority after the 1938 elections, significantly weakened the New Deal's momentum. Shift of Focus: As threats from abroad, particularly the aggressive actions of Nazi Germany, began to dominate national concerns, domestic economic issues were overshadowed, diverting attention and resources away from the New Deal's initiatives. 187 7.11 - Interwar Foreign Policy Disarmament Efforts in the 1920s Washington Conference (1921): Initiated by Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes, this conference led to significant naval disarmament and aimed to stabilize power in the Pacific. Key agreements included the Five-Power Treaty, Four-Power Treaty, and Nine-Power Treaty, which sought to maintain peace and respect territorial integrity, particularly in China. Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928): Led by U.S. Secretary of State Frank Kellogg and French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand, this pact, signed by multiple nations, aimed to renounce war as a means of national policy. It allowed defensive wars and lacked enforcement mechanisms, limiting its effectiveness. Economic Plans and Policies Dawes Plan (1924): Negotiated by Charles Dawes, this plan facilitated a cycle of payments that helped Germany pay reparations to Allies, who in turn could pay their war debts to the U.S. This cycle collapsed after the 1929 stock market crash due to the cessation of U.S. loans. Franklin Roosevelt’s Foreign Policy Good Neighbor Policy: Announced in 1933, this policy ended U.S. intervention in Latin American affairs, emphasizing cooperation and mutual respect. This approach was partly influenced by the economic limitations of the Great Depression and the rise of militarist regimes in Europe. Rise of Fascism and Militarism Italy: Benito Mussolini's Fascist regime, established in 1922, promoted nationalism and an aggressive military stance. Fascism became a significant force in Europe, appealing to war veterans and those fearing communism. Germany: The Nazi Party, led by Adolf Hitler, capitalized on economic misery and nationalistic resentment, gaining power in 1933. Hitler’s regime was marked by aggressive anti-Semitic policies and militaristic expansions. Japan: Increasing militarism led Japan to pursue territorial expansions into China and Southeast Asia, driven by the need for raw materials. This expansionism culminated in the Second Sino-Japanese War starting in 1937, including severe atrocities such as the Nanjing Massacre. 188 7.11 - Interwar Foreign Policy American Isolationism Public Sentiment: Post-World War I disillusionment supported strong isolationist sentiments within the U.S., particularly among Midwesterners and Republicans. This sentiment intensified with the rise of militaristic and fascist powers abroad, reinforcing the desire to avoid foreign entanglements. Lessons from World War I and Neutrality Acts Senate Investigation: Led by Senator Gerald Nye, this committee concluded in 1934 that U.S. involvement in World War I was largely influenced by bankers and arms manufacturers, which fueled isolationist legislation. Neutrality Acts (1935-1937): Aimed to prevent U.S. involvement in foreign conflicts, these acts prohibited arms shipments, travel on belligerent ships, and financial transactions with warring nations, including specific bans related to the Spanish Civil War. Roosevelt’s Foreign Policy Adjustments Quarantine Speech (1937): In response to Japan's invasion of China, Roosevelt suggested a collective quarantine of aggressor nations. The idea faced strong public opposition and was quickly abandoned. Preparedness and Military Buildup: Echoing Wilson’s approach before World War I, Roosevelt advocated for both neutrality and military preparedness, leading to significant increases in U.S. defense budgets by late 1938. Outbreak of World War II Expansion of Nazi Germany: Hitler's occupation of Czechoslovakia in March 1939 demonstrated his broader ambitions, leading Britain and France to pledge support for Poland. Soviet-German Non Aggression Pact (1939): This unexpected agreement between Stalin and Hitler, which included plans to divide Poland, shocked the democratic nations and signaled the imminent start of broader conflict. 189 7.11 - Interwar Foreign Policy Shift in U.S. Policy as War Progressed Roosevelt’s Aid to Allies: Post-1939, Roosevelt began circumventing neutrality laws to provide substantial support to Britain, especially after the fall of France in 1940. This aid was crucial for British resistance against Nazi advances. “Cash and Carry” Policy (1939): Allowed belligerents to purchase U.S. arms with their own transport and funds, benefiting Britain due to its naval superiority. Selective Service Act (1940): Instituted the first peacetime draft in U.S. history, registering American men and preparing for potential involvement in the war, reflecting a shift away from strict neutrality. The Election of 1940 Third Term Decision: Amidst global instability, President Franklin Roosevelt decided to seek a third term, breaking the traditional two-term limit, based on the critical situation at the time. His decision was well-received by most Democrats, and he won re-election. Key Policies and Speeches Arsenal of Democracy: In a fireside chat in December 1940, Roosevelt declared the U.S. the "arsenal of democracy," emphasizing the need to support democratic nations, particularly Britain, against Axis powers. Four Freedoms: In January 1941, Roosevelt articulated the importance of supporting nations that uphold key democratic principles—freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom from want, and freedom from fear. Lend-Lease Act: This act, signed into law in March 1941, allowed Britain and eventually other Allies to purchase military supplies from the U.S. on credit, effectively ending the cash-and-carry requirement of previous neutrality acts. Diplomatic and Military Preparations Atlantic Charter: In August 1941, Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met secretly and drafted the Atlantic Charter, outlining their vision for post-war peace, including self-determination and free trade. Shoot-on-Sight Order: Roosevelt authorized the U.S. Navy to protect Allied ships from German submarines, marking a significant escalation towards active involvement in the war. 190 7.11 - Interwar Foreign Policy Note: United States intervention, despite the neutrality acts, can be seen as inevitable. Roosevelt’s policies are supporting the Allies and he’s participating in post-war plan meetings despite being “neutral” and “uninvolved.” Pearl Harbor and Entry into World War II Attack on Pearl Harbor: On December 7, 1941, Japan launched a surprise attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, causing significant casualties and damage to the U.S. Pacific Fleet. U.S. Declaration of War: Following the attack, Roosevelt delivered his famous "Infamy Speech" to Congress, who declared war on Japan on December 8, 1941. Shortly after, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States, marking America's full entry into World War II. 191 7.12 - World War II Mobilization U.S. Government Mobilization Efforts War Production Board (WPB): Established in early 1942 to oversee and manage the conversion of peacetime industries to war production. Office of War Mobilization (OWM): Implemented later to set production priorities and control the distribution of raw materials essential for war efforts. Office of Price Administration (OPA): Regulated civilian economic life by freezing prices, wages, and rents, and rationing essential commodities like meat, sugar, and gasoline to curb wartime inflation. This led to the emergence of a black market for these goods. Economic and Industrial Impact Economic Boom: Wartime demand and government contracts significantly boosted U.S. industries. By 1944, unemployment was virtually eradicated. In other words, mobilization of the economy for World War 2 took the United States out of the Great Depression. Astonishing Production Levels: U.S. war-related industrial output in 1944 doubled that of all Axis powers combined, with factories producing massive quantities of military equipment, including 300,000 planes, 100,000 tanks, and ships totaling 53 million tons. Efficiency in Production: Henry Kaiser’s shipyards exemplified production efficiency, capable of constructing a new ship in just 14 days. Concentration of Industrial Power: The war effort increasingly centralized production among the largest corporations, with the top 100 firms accounting for about 70% of wartime manufacturing, overshadowing smaller businesses. Office of Research and Development Innovations and Contributions: Established to spearhead the development of crucial wartime technologies such as radar, sonar, penicillin, jet engines, and rockets. Manhattan Project: Managed the top-secret project that developed the first atomic weapons, significantly aided by European scientists who had fled fascist regimes. 192 7.12 - World War II Mobilization Wartime Propaganda Purpose and Media: The U.S. government's propaganda efforts aimed to maintain morale, encourage resource conservation, and boost war production. Office of War Information: Controlled information on troop movements and battles, while media like movies and music promoted a positive, patriotic view of the war. Norman Rockwell’s Illustrations: His "Four Freedoms" series epitomized the democratic values being defended, contributing to the perception of World War II as "the Good War." The War’s Impact on Society Demographic Shifts: The war-induced demand for labor led to significant migration from rural areas to industrial centers, particularly in the Midwest and California, supporting the growth of new communities. African Americans: Over 1.5 million migrated northward for industrial jobs, marking the first time African Americans served as combat aviators. Despite their contributions, they faced severe racial discrimination and violence, notably in race riots in New York and Detroit during 1943. Civil Rights Movement: The "Double V" campaign emerged, advocating for victory over fascism abroad and racial equality at home. Japanese Internment Issuance and Impact: In February 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066. This order authorized the Secretary of War and military commanders to designate "military areas" from which any or all persons could be excluded. This was a response to widespread fear and suspicion towards Japanese Americans following the Pearl Harbor attack in December 1941. Resulting Actions: The executive order led to the creation of military zones on the West Coast of the United States, which were then used to justify the forced relocation and internment of over 100,000 Japanese Americans, two-thirds of whom were American citizens 193 7.12 - World War II Mobilization Korematsu v. United States (1944) Background: Fred Korematsu, an American citizen of Japanese descent, refused to comply with the order of internment. After being arrested and convicted for defiance, his case eventually made its way to the U.S. Supreme Court. Supreme Court Decision: In a controversial 6-3 decision, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the internment orders, arguing that the need to protect against espionage outweighed Korematsu’s individual rights. The Court deemed the executive order a valid exercise of war powers, with national security considerations justifying the extreme measures. 194 7.13 - World War II: Military Fighting Germany Turning Point: The German advance was halted in 1942, primarily due to the Soviet victory at Stalingrad, alongside the impact of U.S. entry into the war. Naval and Aerial Strategies: The Allies focused on overcoming German submarine threats in the Atlantic and initiated bombing raids on German cities, marking significant efforts in the Battle of the Atlantic. Advances in radar and sonar gradually neutralized the submarine menace. Impact of Bombing Raids: Allied "strategic bombing" targeted German military capacities, significantly reducing Germany's ability to sustain the war effort. German Surrender: Following intense Allied advances and internal collapse, Adolf Hitler committed suicide in April 1945, leading to the unconditional surrender of Nazi forces on May 7, 1945. Discovery of the Holocaust: Advancing U.S. troops uncovered the extensive atrocities of the Holocaust, revealing the systematic genocide of 6 million Jews and millions of non-Jews by the Nazis. Pacific Theater U.S. Dominance: Post-Pearl Harbor, Japan expanded its control over East and Southeast Asia. The U.S. primarily led efforts against Japan in the Pacific, different from the joint Allied efforts in Europe. Island Hopping Strategy: Following the victory at Midway, U.S. forces implemented the island hopping strategy, selectively attacking strategic locations and bypassing heavily fortified Japanese positions, effectively isolating them and moving closer to Japan. Japanese Tactics Kamikaze Attacks: Introduced during the Battle of Leyte Gulf and extensively used in the Battle of Okinawa, kamikaze pilots exemplified the Japanese cultural ethos of never surrendering, conducting suicide attacks against U.S. ships, significantly impacting U.S. forces. 195 7.13 - World War II: Military Development and Use of Atomic Bombs Manhattan Project: A top-secret initiative that developed the atomic bomb, led by General Leslie Groves and scientist J. Robert Oppenheimer, culminating in the first successful test in New Mexico on July 16, 1945. Presidential Decision: Following an unsatisfactory response from Japan to an ultimatum for unconditional surrender, President Harry Truman, who assumed office after Roosevelt's death in April 1945, authorized the use of atomic bombs. Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki: Hiroshima was bombed on August 6, 1945, followed by Nagasaki on August 9. These bombings resulted in approximately 250,000 Japanese casualties and were pivotal in ending the war. War and Morality Ethical Concerns: The use of nuclear weapons raised profound moral questions due to the massive civilian casualties and the long-term effects of radiation. Shift in Bombing Tactics: Initially targeting only military sites, U.S. strategies evolved to include the fire-bombing of Japanese cities, blurring the lines between military and civilian targets. Japan’s Surrender Imperial Japan’s Conditions: Japan agreed to surrender on August 15, 1945, provided that the Allies allowed Emperor Hirohito to retain a ceremonial role. Formal Surrender: The formal surrender occurred on September 2, 1945, aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay, officially ending World War II. 196 7.14 - Postwar Diplomacy American Leadership 1944 Election: President Franklin D. Roosevelt was nominated for a fourth term with a change in the vice-presidential candidate to Harry S. Truman, replacing Henry Wallace due to concerns about Wallace's radical views. Election Outcome: The Democrats secured 53% of the popular vote and a decisive 432–99 Electoral College victory. Roosevelt’s Health and Death: Roosevelt’s health was failing, though he publicly denied any issues. He passed away less than three months after his fourth inauguration, leading to Vice President Harry S. Truman assuming the presidency. Wartime Conferences Tehran Conference (November 1943): The first meeting of the Big Three (Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin) where they planned the D-Day invasion and Soviet engagement in the war against Japan. Yalta Conference (February 1945): This pivotal meeting addressed post-war plans, including the division of Germany, free elections in Eastern Europe (despite Soviet control), Soviet entry into the war against Japan, and the groundwork for the United Nations. Criticized later as conceding Eastern Europe to Soviet influence. Roosevelt’s Passing: Shortly after Yalta, Roosevelt’s health visibly declined, and he died in April 1945, leaving Truman to navigate the final stages of the war. Potsdam Conference (July 1945) Leadership Changes: With Roosevelt deceased and Churchill replaced by Clement Attlee after the UK elections, Truman, Attlee, and Stalin met to finalize demands for Japan’s unconditional surrender and post-war Germany. Emerging Tensions: The conference revealed growing fissures within the Grand Alliance, particularly regarding the treatment of Germany and the broader implications of Soviet actions in Eastern Europe. Truman’s approach marked a shift towards a tougher stance against Soviet expansions. 197 7.14 - Postwar Diplomacy Post-War Economic Landscape National Debt: The war significantly increased the U.S. national debt. Relative Economic Strength: Unlike war-torn Europe and Japan, the U.S. infrastructure remained intact, positioning it as a predominant economic power post-war. Devastation in Europe: Europe was left in ruins, with major cities, industries, and infrastructure extensively damaged or destroyed, leading to severe economic hardship and setting the stage for initiatives like the Marshall Plan to rebuild and stabilize European economies. Global Influence: Post-war, the U.S. emerged as the leader of the victorious Allied coalition, significantly influencing global politics and confirming its status as the world's leading power by 1945. Formation of the United Nations Foundational Meetings: Initial discussions took place in 1944 at Dumbarton Oaks, with representatives from the U.S., USSR, Great Britain, and China laying the groundwork for a new international peacekeeping organization. Charter Development: In April 1945, delegates from 50 countries drafted the United Nations Charter in San Francisco over eight weeks. U.S. Ratification: The U.S. Senate quickly approved American membership in the UN, a stark contrast to its rejection of the League of Nations after World War I. The United Nations officially came into existence on October 24, 1945, after ratification by a majority of member nations. The United States were now in a permanent alliance and will no longer ever be “isolated” or “neutral.” 198 Period 8: Cold War (1945 - 1980) Return to Table of Contents 8.2 - The Cold War from 1945 to 1980 Origins of the Cold War Cold War Overview: The Cold War was an intense rivalry between the U.S. and the Soviet Union from the late 1940s until the Soviet Union's collapse in 1991, marked by indirect conflicts, diplomatic tensions, and the looming threat of nuclear war. Historians' Views: Some historians argue that Truman’s policies were a reasonable response to Soviet aggression, while others believe he overreacted or was too lenient in dealing with communism. U.S.–Soviet Relations to 1945 Wartime Alliance: The U.S. and Soviet Union's alliance during World War II was temporary, halting their generally poor relations since the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, which had caused deep mistrust in the U.S. toward Soviet communism. Post-War Tensions: Historical mistrust was fueled by events like the Soviet Nonaggression Pact with Nazi Germany in 1939, further souring relations. Postwar Cooperation and the United Nations United Nations Formation: Established in 1945, the UN included a General Assembly for all member nations and a 15-member Security Council with permanent seats for the U.S., Soviet Union, Britain, France, and China, each holding veto power. Atomic Energy Disagreement: The Soviet Union's rejection of the U.S.-proposed Baruch Plan for regulating nuclear energy and eliminating atomic weapons was seen by American leaders as proof of Soviet aggression. World Bank Participation: The U.S. invited Soviet participation in the World Bank, created to fund post-war reconstruction, but the Soviets declined, viewing it as a capitalist tool. Occupation Zones in Germany Division of Germany: Post-war Germany was divided into Soviet, French, British, and U.S. zones. The Soviet-controlled eastern zone evolved into the Communist German Democratic Republic, while the U.S. and Britain focused on economic recovery in the west. Conflict Over Reparations: The Soviets demanded heavy reparations from Germany, while the U.S. and Britain prioritized Germany’s economic recovery for European stability, leading to further tensions. 200 8.2 - The Cold War from 1945 to 1980 Iron Curtain and Get-Tough Policy Truman's Stance: By 1946, Truman was frustrated with Soviet actions, especially regarding Soviet espionage and continued occupation of northern Iran. Iron Curtain Speech: In March 1946, Winston Churchill, with Truman present, declared that an "iron curtain" had descended across Europe, symbolizing the division between Western democracies and Eastern communist states, and calling for Western unity against communism. Containment in Europe Containment Policy: In 1947, President Truman adopted a containment policy aimed at preventing Soviet expansion and the spread of communism without provoking war. Criticism: Some critics, like journalist Walter Lippmann, believed the policy was too broad, arguing that not all regions were vital to U.S. interests and that the U.S. should not support all governments equally. However, the U.S. leadership, recalling the failures of appeasement before World War II, felt that any communist aggression must be confronted. The Truman Doctrine First Implementation: Truman first applied containment in 1947 in response to threats in Greece (a Communist uprising) and Turkey (Soviet demands for control of the Dardanelles). Request to Congress: He asked Congress for $400 million in economic and military aid to support Greece and Turkey against "totalitarian" regimes, emphasizing the importance of defending free peoples. 201 8.2 - The Cold War from 1945 to 1980 The Marshall Plan Post-War Europe: After World War II, Europe was devastated, with widespread food shortages, debt, and economic instability. The harsh winter of 1946–1947 further increased the appeal of communism, particularly in France and Italy. Marshall Plan Proposal: In June 1947, George Marshall proposed a large-scale U.S. economic aid program to help European nations recover and strengthen their democratic governments. Congress approved $12 billion in aid in 1948 for Western Europe over four years. Soviet Rejection: The Soviet Union and its Eastern European allies refused the aid, fearing it would make them dependent on the U.S. Effects of the Marshall Plan Success in Western Europe: The Marshall Plan achieved its goals, spurring economic growth in Western Europe by the 1950s and preventing the spread of communism. It also benefited the U.S. by increasing American exports to Europe. Worsened East-West Relations: The plan, while successful in rebuilding Western Europe, also deepened the divide between the non-Communist West and the Communist East. The Berlin Airlift Berlin Blockade (1948): The Soviets cut off all land access to West Berlin, trying to force the Allies out of the city. Truman refused to withdraw or use force and instead initiated a massive airlift to supply the city. Airlift Success: U.S. planes delivered essential supplies to West Berlin for 11 months. The Soviets eventually lifted the blockade in May 1949, avoiding a direct conflict. Long-Term Consequence: The crisis led to the formal division of Germany into West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany, U.S. ally) and East Germany (German Democratic Republic, Soviet satellite). 202 8.2 - The Cold War from 1945 to 1980 NATO and National Security Formation of NATO (1949): Truman broke with U.S. tradition by forming a permanent military alliance with Western European nations and Canada. NATO aimed to defend against potential Soviet aggression. Soviet Response: The Soviets countered by forming the Warsaw Pact in 1955, a military alliance for Eastern European Communist states. National Security Act (1947) Military Modernization: The National Security Act centralized the U.S. military under the Department of Defense, created the National Security Council (NSC) for foreign policy coordination, and established the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) for intelligence gathering. Military Draft: The Selective Service System and a peacetime draft were also instituted in 1948. Atomic Weapons and the Arms Race Arms Race Begins: The U.S. held a monopoly on atomic bombs until 1949, when the Soviets successfully tested their own. This sparked an intense arms race. Development of the Hydrogen Bomb: In response to the Soviet atomic bomb, Truman approved the development of the hydrogen bomb, a weapon far more powerful than the atomic bomb, which was added to the U.S. arsenal in 1952. NSC-68 Recommendations (1950): This secret report called for a significant increase in U.S. defense spending, public support for an arms buildup, and forming global alliances to counter the spread of communism. Cold War in Asia Containment Policy in Asia: Unlike in Europe, the U.S. containment policy was less successful in Asia, where former colonies became new nations with distinct cultural and political traditions, often resisting U.S. influence. 203 8.2 - The Cold War from 1945 to 1980 The Korean War Division of Korea: After Japan's defeat in World War II, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel, with the Soviet-backed Communist regime under Kim Il Sung in the North and the U.S.-backed nationalist government under Syngman Rhee in the South. Invasion and U.S. Response North Korean Invasion (June 25, 1950): North Korea invaded South Korea, surprising the world. Truman immediately applied his containment policy, leading the UN to authorize a force to defend South Korea, primarily made up of U.S. troops under General Douglas MacArthur. "Police Action": Although U.S. forces were heavily involved, Congress did not declare war, framing the intervention as a "police action" under the UN's auspices. Counterattack and Chinese Involvement Inchon Landing: MacArthur launched a successful amphibious assault at Inchon, pushing North Korean forces back towards the Chinese border. Chinese Counterattack: Ignoring warnings from China, MacArthur's advance prompted a massive Chinese intervention, pushing UN forces back to the 38th parallel. Truman vs. MacArthur MacArthur's Dismissal: MacArthur publicly advocated for expanding the war into China, which led to his dismissal by Truman for insubordination. MacArthur returned as a hero, while Truman faced criticism for not pursuing a total victory over communism in Asia. Stalemate and Political Consequences Stalemate: The war reached a stalemate near the 38th parallel, leading to peace talks beginning in 1951. Cold War Strategy: Truman's containment policy succeeded in preventing the spread of communism without escalating into a global conflict. The Korean War justified increased U.S. military spending and global troop deployments. 204 8.2 - The Cold War from 1945 to 1980 Korean Armistice Armistice (July 1953): After Eisenhower took office, a combination of diplomacy, nuclear threats, and Stalin’s death led to an armistice. Korea remained divided at the 38th parallel, with no formal peace treaty. Sputnik Shock (1957) Soviet Achievement: The Soviet Union launched Sputnik I and Sputnik II, the first satellites, into orbit, challenging U.S. technological leadership. U.S. Response: The U.S. faced repeated failures in launching similar rockets, leading to criticism of the American education system, particularly in math and science. Government Action: In 1958, Congress passed the National Defense and Education Act (NDEA) to improve math, science, and foreign language education, and created NASA to spearhead space exploration and missile development. Nuclear Fears: The Sputnik launch intensified fears of nuclear war, as the same missiles could carry nuclear warheads worldwide within minutes. Second Berlin Crisis (1958-1959) Khrushchev’s Threat: Soviet leader Khrushchev demanded the West withdraw from West Berlin, threatening to turn the city over to East Germany. Diplomatic Response: Eisenhower invited Khrushchev to the U.S., leading to the Camp David talks where the crisis was temporarily defused, and a follow-up summit was scheduled. U-2 Incident (1960) Spy Plane Shot Down: A U.S. U-2 spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union, revealing that the U.S. had been conducting secret surveillance flights. Diplomatic Fallout: Eisenhower took responsibility, but the incident led Khrushchev to walk out of the planned Paris summit, reigniting Cold War tensions. 205 8.2 - The Cold War from 1945 to 1980 Communism in Cuba (1959) Fidel Castro's Rise: Castro overthrew Cuban dictator Batista and soon aligned Cuba with the Soviet Union, establishing a Communist state. U.S. Reaction: Eisenhower cut off trade with Cuba and authorized the CIA to train Cuban exiles for an invasion to overthrow Castro, leaving the final decision to his successor, John F. Kennedy. Eisenhower’s Legacy Cold War Management: Eisenhower claimed credit for containing communism and maintaining peace without American combat casualties. Arms Limitation: In 1958, he initiated the suspension of aboveground nuclear testing, starting the process of arms control. Warning on Military-Industrial Complex: In his farewell address, Eisenhower cautioned against the growing influence of the military-industrial complex, warning it could lead the U.S. down a dangerous path, reminiscent of imperial Rome. Election of JFK (1960) John F. Kennedy criticized the Eisenhower administration for allowing the Soviets to gain the upper hand in the arms race, despite the U.S. actually having an advantage. Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961) Failed Invasion: Kennedy approved a CIA plan to use Cuban exiles to overthrow Fidel Castro. The invasion at the Bay of Pigs failed, leading to the capture of the exiles and strengthening Castro's ties with the Soviet Union. 206 8.2 - The Cold War from 1945 to 1980 Berlin Wall (1961) Soviet Threats: After the Bay of Pigs, Soviet leader Khrushchev demanded the U.S. withdraw from West Berlin. Kennedy refused, leading to the construction of the Berlin Wall by East Germany, backed by the Soviets. Kennedy's Speech: In 1963, Kennedy visited West Berlin and delivered his famous "Ich bin ein Berliner" speech, reaffirming U.S. support for the city's freedom. Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) Missile Threat: The U.S. discovered Soviet missiles being constructed in Cuba. Kennedy responded with a naval blockade, risking nuclear war. Resolution: After intense negotiations, Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles in exchange for a U.S. promise not to invade Cuba and to remove U.S. missiles from Turkey. Aftermath: The crisis led to the establishment of a hotline between Washington and Moscow and the signing of the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963, though the arms race continued. Lyndon Johnson Becomes President JFK Assassination: Kennedy was assassinated in Texas in 1963, leading to Vice President Lyndon Johnson assuming the presidency. Johnson's Focus: Johnson, more focused on domestic issues, continued the containment policy, leading to the escalation of the Vietnam War. Soviet Relations: Despite the Vietnam War, Johnson engaged with the Soviets, leading to agreements like the Outer Space Treaty and the Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1968. However, U.S.-Soviet relations were strained after the Soviet suppression of the Prague Spring in Czechoslovakia. 207 8.2 - The Cold War from 1945 to 1980 Nixon’s Détente Diplomacy Nixon’s Focus on Foreign Policy: In his 1969 inaugural address, President Nixon emphasized the need to unify America after the turmoil of the 1960s, with a strong focus on international relations over domestic policy. Realist Foreign Policy: Nixon, along with his national security adviser Henry Kissinger, developed a pragmatic foreign policy that aimed to end the Vietnam War and reduce Cold War tensions. Détente: Nixon and Kissinger capitalized on the rivalry between China and the Soviet Union, leading to a deliberate reduction in Cold War tensions. Their diplomacy was credited with enhancing global peace. Visit to China (1972) Opening Relations: Nixon, known for his strong anti-communist stance, surprised the world by visiting China in 1972, meeting with Mao Zedong. This visit initiated diplomatic exchanges that eventually led to the U.S. recognizing Communist China in 1979. Arms Control with the U.S.S.R. SALT I Agreement: Nixon used improved relations with China to pressure the Soviet Union into signing a treaty that limited anti ballistic missiles (ABMs). The Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT I) resulted in an agreement to freeze the number of ballistic missiles with nuclear warheads, marking a significant step in reducing Cold War tensions. Another Chill in the Cold War Nixon’s Resignation and Aftermath: Nixon’s resignation in 1974, due to the Watergate scandal, coupled with the fall of South Vietnam in 1975, led to a loss of trust in the U.S. government. 208 8.3 - The Red Scare Rooting Out Communists Loyalty Review Board (1947-1951): Under pressure, Truman's administration created the Loyalty Review Board to investigate the loyalty of more than 3 million federal employees, leading to thousands of resignations or dismissals. Prosecutions and Legislation Smith Act Prosecutions: Leaders of the American Communist Party were jailed under the Smith Act, which made it illegal to advocate the overthrow of the U.S. government. The Supreme Court upheld this in Dennis v. United States (1951). McCarran Internal Security Act (1950): Over Truman’s veto, Congress passed this act, making it illegal to support totalitarian governments, restricting the activities of Communist organizations, and authorizing detention camps for subversives. Espionage Cases Rosenberg Case: Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were convicted of treason for allegedly passing atomic secrets to the Soviets. Despite controversy and claims of anti-Communist hysteria, they were executed in 1953. The Rise and Fall of Joseph McCarthy McCarthy’s Accusations: Senator Joseph McCarthy claimed to have a list of Communists in the government, using these unproven accusations to gain political power and media attention. McCarthy’s Tactics: His aggressive, unsupported claims discredited many and kept the media focus on him. While controversial, McCarthy became extremely powerful and feared in the early 1950s. Army-McCarthy Hearings (1954): Televised Senate hearings exposed McCarthy's tactics as bullying, leading to his censure by the Senate. This marked the decline of McCarthyism. The fear of a Communist takeover in the U.S. diminished as it became clear that the threat was exaggerated. The economic boom of the 1950s and the armistice in Korea helped shift public focus away from communism. 209 8.4 - Economy after 1945 Postwar Economy under Truman Truman’s Leadership: After FDR's death, Harry S. Truman became president and sought to continue New Deal policies, but faced growing conservative opposition. Employment Act of 1946 Progressive Measures: Truman pushed for national health insurance, an increased minimum wage, and full employment. The final version of the Employment Act of 1946 created the Council of Economic Advisers to guide economic policy but was less ambitious than Truman had hoped. GI Bill—Help for Veterans Support for Veterans: The GI Bill (1944) helped 15 million veterans transition to civilian life, providing funds for education and loans for homes, farms, and businesses. This boosted the postwar economy by increasing education and promoting new construction. Racial Inequities: However, Black veterans often faced discrimination, with fewer opportunities to use educational benefits or obtain loans, widening the racial wealth gap. Baby Boom Population Growth: Postwar confidence led to a surge in marriages and births, with 50 million babies born between 1945 and 1960. This "baby boom" had lasting effects on U.S. society and the economy. Women in the Workforce: While many women focused on homemaking, the trend of women working outside the home continued, with one-third of married women employed by 1960. 210 8.4 - Economy after 1945 Suburban Growth Housing Boom and Segregation: The postwar demand for housing led to a suburban construction boom, such as Levittown, a mass-produced suburban development. However, Levittown was only for White families; African American families were not allowed to buy homes there. Federal policies at the time supported segregation in housing, subsidizing loans for White families while excluding many Black families. Impact on Cities: The mass movement to suburbia had a devastating impact on older inner cities. By the 1960s, cities from Boston to Los Angeles became increasingly poor and racially divided as wealthier, predominantly White families moved to the suburbs. Return to Traditional Roles: The suburban lifestyle often led to a return to more traditional roles, with more women focusing on homemaking, reminiscent of earlier times. However, the trend of women entering the workforce continued to grow despite this shift. Truman versus the Republican Congress Republican Victory in 1946: Discontent with inflation and strikes led voters to elect Republican majorities in Congress. The 80th Congress, under Republican control, aimed to pass tax cuts for the wealthy, which Truman vetoed, and attempted to roll back New Deal labor gains. Twenty-Second Amendment (1951): Reacting to FDR's four terms, Congress passed an amendment limiting presidents to two terms, ratified in 1951. Taft-Hartley Act (1947): Congress passed this probusiness law despite Truman's veto. It aimed to limit union power by: ○ Outlawing the closed shop (union membership before hiring). ○ Allowing states to pass "right to work" laws, banning mandatory union membership after hiring. ○ Banning secondary boycotts (other unions supporting a striking union). ○ Giving the president authority to impose an 80-day cooling-off period before strikes that threatened national safety. 211 8.4 - Economy after 1945 The Election of 1948 Despite low popularity and splits within his party, Truman campaigned vigorously against the "do-nothing" Republican Congress, leading to a surprising victory over Republican Thomas E. Dewey, winning by 2 million popular votes and 303 electoral votes. The Fair Deal: Truman proposed an ambitious reform agenda including national health insurance, federal aid to education, civil rights legislation, public housing funds, and a new farm program. Most proposals were blocked by Congress due to political conflicts and Cold War priorities. However, the minimum wage was increased, and more workers were included under Social Security. Truman's efforts kept New Deal reforms intact and showed civil rights in the liberal agenda. Eisenhower in the White House (1953–1961) Eisenhower’s Appeal: Eisenhower, known as “Ike,” became a symbol of the 1950s, loved and trusted by millions for his role as a successful general during World War II. The slogan “I Like Ike” reflected his popularity among middle-class Americans. The Election of 1952: With Americans tired of the Korean War and "the mess in Washington," Eisenhower and his running mate, Richard Nixon, were nominated by the Republicans. They defeated Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson, winning 55% of the popular vote and an overwhelming Electoral College victory. Interstate Highway System: One of Eisenhower's most lasting legacies was the 1956 Highway Act, which led to the construction of 42,000 miles of interstate highways. This project boosted the economy, created jobs, and promoted suburban growth but also negatively impacted railroads and the environment, with little focus

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