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Four Themes in Criminological Thought 1. Mistrust Key Idea: Public opinion and common sense cannot be fully trusted due to biases and power dynamics. Reasons for Mistrust: ○ Influences such as age, politics, and race can shape perspectives. ○ Different indivi...

Four Themes in Criminological Thought 1. Mistrust Key Idea: Public opinion and common sense cannot be fully trusted due to biases and power dynamics. Reasons for Mistrust: ○ Influences such as age, politics, and race can shape perspectives. ○ Different individuals have varying interests and viewpoints. Objective Judgement: ○ It's essential to challenge "the truth" as one person's truth may not be universally valid. ○ Objective analysis requires considering multiple perspectives and alternative explanations. 2. Relativity of Truth Key Idea: Truth is subjective and influenced by individual perspectives and experiences. Factors Affecting Truth: ○ Witnesses and participants have different emotional and situational interpretations. ○ Crime is often emotionally charged, leading to varied reactions from families of offenders and victims. ○ Power dynamics can dismiss or reshape the "truth." Important Considerations: ○ Move beyond emotional or gut reactions. ○ Examine all sides of the issue, as truth is not singular or fixed. 3. Criminology's Interdisciplinary Nature Focus Areas: ○ Interpersonal Relations: Emphasis on close relationships (e.g., relatives, friends, coaches). ○ Group Membership: Broader community influences such as gang affiliations, subcultures, and geographic factors. ○ Social Structure: Macro-level focus on politics, economics, and social inequalities. Application: ○ These areas highlight the diverse social, geographic, and economic factors that impact crime and deviance. 4. "Criminological" Problems  Key Idea: Social issues labeled as criminological problems focus on deviance and victimization. Relativity of Problems: ○ Problems should not be taken at face value—what may be a problem for one group may not be for another. Interdisciplinary Approach: ○ Criminology draws from multiple disciplines (e.g., economics, sociology, politics). ○ Different factors must be taken into account when addressing criminological problems, recognizing the complexity of societal issues. Theory Construction 1. Social Situation/Phenomenon: Definition: The issue or problem to be addressed. Purpose: Identify the social issue that needs a solution. 2. Concepts: Definition: The terms used to describe social issues or phenomena. Measurement: Historically, concepts were measured quantitatively (e.g., statistics), but now there is a shift towards qualitative measures. Examples: Housing problems, access to living wages, education. 3. Hypotheses: Definition: Anticipated influences or relationships between factors. Role: Hypotheses guide research by predicting certain outcomes. Example: Socio-economic status might be related to property crime. Form: Can be stated as a question or a declarative statement. 4. Theory: Definition: Developed after data collection and hypothesis testing. Forms: ○ Explanation: Offers an image of what is happening. ○ Recipe for Action: Provides a plan for addressing the issue (e.g., strategies to prevent crime). Sequence in the Search for Answers Key Questions: ○ WHY does crime happen? (Public reactions focus) ○ WHO, WHEN, WHERE, WHAT, and HOW are also explored. Paradigms Examples: Classical and Positivist Criminology. Key Features: ○ Basic unit of consensus. ○ Provides a fundamental image of the subject matter. Roles of Paradigms: 1. Define and Legitimate Problems. 2. Define Rules of Research Activity. 3. Draw Practitioners into the Community. Demonic Paradigm: Authority: The Church held authority over criminal justice. Crime Definition: Seen as sin or the result of demonic temptation. Response: Punitive measures, often involving torture to expel the sin. Critique: ○ Reliance on belief and untestable assumptions. ○ Torture was the primary method of dealing with deviance. ○ Assumed consensus on dominant values, which excluded other viewpoints and perpetuated inequalities. ○ Example: Historically, Canadian law allowed a man to physically abuse his wife with an instrument no wider than his thumb. ○ Problem: Not everyone agreed with the dominant values, especially victims. Classical Paradigm: Shift in Authority: Moved away from religious authority towards secular experts. Crime Definition: Crime is a rational choice, calculated by individuals using free will (rather than possession or sin). Cause of Crime: Hedonism—people seek to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. Punishment: Should be swift, proportionate to the crime, and serve as a deterrent to future crime. Critique: ○ Limited focus on the individual act. ○ Questionable effectiveness of deterrence. ○ Assumption of consensus.  ○ While promoting equality before the law, inequalities still exist. Neo-Classical -State and legislative power-Still free will-Response must be based on circumstance, record of offender and social inequalities as well as physical defects.-Critique: still individual focused, punitive response, assumptions of consensus equality remains Positivism Authority: Shifted from the state and church to the state and science, with experts in science taking the lead. Basic Tenets: 1. Focus on Individual Behavior: ○ The emphasis is on individual characteristics, rather than the criminal act itself. 2. Deviance is Beyond Free Will: ○ Deviance is seen as something beyond the individual’s control, not a matter of rational choice or free will. 3. Inequality Before the Law: ○ Unlike Classical theory, Positivism argues that everyone is different in problematic ways, and not everyone should be treated equally before the law. 4. Determinism: ○ Positivism is grounded in the idea of determinism—individuals are determined by their physiological or psychological "defects." ○ Lack of Autonomy: People commit crimes not by choice, but because they are predisposed to deviant behavior due to their inherent defects. ○ Discriminatory: This theory often leads to discrimination, as it implies some people are inherently "defective." Similarities Between Classical and Positivist Criminology Consensus-Based: Both assume a societal consensus about what constitutes crime and deviance. Micro-Level Focus: Despite differing perspectives, both focus on the individual as the unit of analysis. Intervention: Both theories target interventions at the individual level (e.g., punishment or treatment). State-Based: The intervention and control mechanisms are state-based, state-funded, and state-controlled. Punitive: Despite proactive goals, both approaches can lead to punitive outcomes for individuals. Positivist and Demonic Perspectives on Crime Positivist View: Crime is a result of the individual’s internal abnormalities or defects (e.g., physiological, psychological). ○ Terminology: "Kinds of people"—crime is seen as inherent in the individual. Demonic View: Crime is caused by possession, where external evil forces compel the individual to commit crimes. Sociological Dimension: A New Perspective Innovative Approach: Focuses on external factors rather than internal characteristics. Key Idea: Sociological factors, such as the environment and community, shape human behavior. Social Ecology Theories Core Concept: Crime is generated by pathological conditions in the environment, still within the realm of positivism, but applied through a social lens. Key Aspects: 1. Less Focus on the Individual: More emphasis on the environment shaping behavior. 2. Pathological Communities: Certain communities are affected by pathological conditions that foster crime. 3. Environmental Influence: ○ Physical and geographical design of communities. ○ More focus on architectural factors (e.g., city planning) than on the natural environment. 4. Cultural/Social Context: Human behavior is influenced by the social and cultural setting of their environment. Ecology vs. Social Ecology: Ecology: Studies the relationship between organisms and their natural environment. Social/Human Ecology: Examines the relationship between humans and their communities, focusing on how (dis)organized communities affect behavior. Social Ecology: Also incorporates human geography, looking at how the physical and social organization of spaces affects crime. Crime and Geography Uneven Geographical Distribution: Crime rates are not evenly spread across geographical locations. ○ Higher Crime Rates in Urban Areas: Urban spaces, especially inner-city areas, tend to have more crime compared to rural areas. ○ Urban vs. Rural: Different types of crime are prevalent in urban versus rural settings, with inner cities often being more criminogenic. Social Disorganization Theory (Chicago School) Core Idea: People who commit crimes are “normal”, but their living conditions are “abnormal”. ○ Still maintains a positivist notion of determinism, as external factors determine behavior. Ethnographic Approach: Chicago School: Moved beyond statistics and focused on people’s experiences. ○ Methods: Case studies, life histories, and direct observation. Organized vs. Disorganized Areas: Organized Areas: ○ People obey rules because they see the benefits of maintaining social order. ○ They take pride in following rules and recognize the importance of community organization. Disorganized Areas: ○ People disobey rules because the disorganization offers them no benefits or even causes harm. ○ There is less motivation to conform to rules, leading to higher crime rates. Assessment of the Chicago School Strengths: Ethnographic & Field Research Focus: ○ Prioritized qualitative research over statistics, which led to methodological advancements and a more community-centered approach. Shift in Focus: ○ Moved from the individual to the community as the focus of intervention. Situational Focus: ○ Examined the macro-level context of crime, providing a more complete picture.  Proactive Solutions: ○ Shifted from reactive punishment/treatment to proactive design that addresses the root causes of crime. Limitations: 1. Positivist Definition of Crime: ○ Still retained a deterministic approach, where external factors determine deviance. 2. Ecological Fallacy: ○ Theories that imply certain areas have more deviance can lead to discrimination. 3. Limited Explanation of Crime: ○ Did not fully address social structure and only focused partially on macro-level factors. 4. Individual Participation Requirement: ○ Solutions still require micro-level individual participation and can be somewhat reactive. 5. Consensus-Based: ○ Assumes that people agree on societal rules, which may not always reflect reality. Key Concepts in Social Organization and Crime Social Organization (Synchronic Macro): ○ Question: Why does criminal activity persist? ○ Uses the metaphor of synecdoche (part/whole) to explain how organized crime reflects broader social dynamics. Social Change (Diachronic Macro): ○ Question: What are the dynamics by which crime and criminal justice change over time? ○ Uses irony and explores critical criminology to understand the evolving nature of crime and justice. Acts (Synchronic Micro): ○ Question: Why do some people commit crimes? ○ Uses metaphor to explain how individual actions resemble larger trends in criminal behavior. Interaction (Diachronic Micro): ○ Question: What is the process by which individuals come to be defined as criminals? ○ Uses metonymy (essence) and relates to labeling theory, which explores how societal labels affect individual identity and criminalization. Criminal Behavior and Non-Criminal Behavior Main Idea: Criminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values as non-criminal behavior. Both conformity and deviance aim to achieve similar goals, such as survival and success. Glaser’s Differential Identification Theory Intensity of Associations: ○ The strength of bonds with others influences behavior. Degree of Identification: ○ The stronger the identification with a person or group, the more likely one is to adopt their values. Strength of Identification: ○ Strong identification with deviants increases the likelihood of engaging in deviant behavior. Applications of Learning Perspectives 1. Becker (1953): Becoming a Marijuana User ○ Focuses on how individuals learn to become marijuana users through interaction with experienced users. 2. Pawson et al. (2017): Becoming a Prescription Pill Smoker ○ Explores the social learning process involved in becoming a prescription pill smoker. Sykes and Matza’s Techniques of Neutralization Purpose: These techniques are used to provide justifications, excuses, or denials for deviant behavior. For some, these techniques help to mitigate social reaction or deflect their own internal sense of shame. Five Techniques of Neutralization: 1. Denial of Responsibility: ○ The individual rationalizes the behavior by claiming it wasn’t their fault, blaming external factors to manage their self-disapproval. 2. Denial of Injury:  ○ The person denies that anyone was harmed by their actions. For example, vandalism might be justified by saying "no one got hurt." 3. Denial of the Victim: ○ The deviant reframes the victim as someone who deserved the harm, often with a revengeful tone. 4. Condemnation of the Condemners: ○ The individual retaliates against those condemning them, calling them corrupt or deflecting the blame onto authority figures (e.g., government, police). 5. Appeal to Higher Loyalties: ○ The person justifies their actions by claiming they were following orders or commands from a higher authority. This often applies in do-or-die situations or when individuals feel compelled by a "greater cause" (e.g., soldiers following problematic orders).