Unit 1 Lesson 1: A Glimpse of the Cordillera Region PDF

Unit 1 Lesson 1 1 A Glimpse of the Cordillera Region Learning Outcomes 1. compare and contrast the provinces of the Cordillera region in terms of predominant ethnicity and response to colonialism 2. identify a lesson learned from the Igoro...

Unit 1 Lesson 1 1 A Glimpse of the Cordillera Region Learning Outcomes 1. compare and contrast the provinces of the Cordillera region in terms of predominant ethnicity and response to colonialism 2. identify a lesson learned from the Igorots’ response to colonialism that can be applied to one’s personal life The word cordillera is derived from the Spanish word cordilla which means ‘little cord.’ In geography, cordillera refers to “a series of parallel mountains that run along the backbone of a continent or an island like a twisted cord.” (Buendia, 1987, pp. 158-159) Hence, Buendia’s description of the north-central region of Luzon can explain why the old Mountain Province is called the Gran Cordillera (big littlle cord) and why the term cordillera is a neutral term that is used as the name of the region: … rises abruptly from the sea at Pasaleng on the boundary of Cagayan and IIocos Norte provinces. It quickly rises to a height of 7,000 feet dividing Apayao from IIocos Norte, and then to Kalinga, with peaks reaching to 8,000 feet. These continue southward through the province of Bontoc until they reach a peak of 9,600 feet (26 meters shy of the country's highest, Mt. Apo) on Mount Pulog in Benguet. Then they descend to the plains of Pangasinan, through a spur about 5,000 feet high called the Caraballo Sur, run off to the southeast of Baguio and divide the province of Nueva Vizcaya from Nueva Ecija. The whole area is so ruggedly mountainous that in terms of land mass, the Gran Cordillera forms approximately 1/6 of the total land area of the island of Luzon. (p. 159) On July 15, 1987, Executive Order (EO) 220 created the Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) which includes Abra and the former sub-provinces of the old Mountain Province, namely, Apayao, Benguet, Ifugao, Kalinga, and Mountain Province. Bontoc was the name of the former sub-province but is now the name of the capital town of Mountain Province. The region also includes one chartered city (Baguio) and one component city (Tabuk). Composition of CAR The subsequent paragraphs are general descriptions of the profile of the six provinces and the two cities. A sample of each of the six provinces’ response to colonialism and the dominant ethnolinguistic groups in these provinces and cities are included. Abra. This province that has a total land area of 4,199.72 square kilometers regained its status as a province in March 1917 through the passage of Act 2683 after a 12-year period of being a sub-province of Ilocos Sur. It is bounded in the North by Ilocos Norte and Apayao, in the East by Kalinga, in the South by Mountain Province, and in the Southwest by Ilocos sur. (History, n.d.) It has 27 municipalities and was integrated into the Cordillera Administrative Region through EO 220. The indigenous peoples of Abra are called Itneg (the term probably was derived from: I [from] tineg [major river system] or iti uneg [from inside]) or Tingguian (tinggi or tingue - Malay root word for mountains). The term indicates the river system and mountainous territory of these IPs who are generally categorized as lowland and upland Tingguians (Begnalen et al., 2023). Table1 presents the sub-groups of the Tingguians: Table 1 Sub-groups of Tingguians and the Municipalities Where They Live Tingguian Sub-groups Municipalities where they Predominantly Live Upland Lowland Adasen* Tineg*, Lacub #, Licuan-Baay #, Danglas #, Lagangilang*,San Juan* Agta※ Marugnoy of Villaviciosa※ Baclingayan-Belwang # Tubo #, Dao-angan of Boliney, Belwang※ Baklingayan of Tubo※ Balatoc* Boliney#, Amti, Kilong-olaw, and Danak of Boliney※ Banao* Malibcong*, Daguioman* Bangilo-Gubang #; Malibcong* Gubang※  Unit 1 Lesson 1 2 Binongan* Lacub*, Licuan-Baay* Lagangilang# Inlaud※ some barangays of Lagangilang, Penarubia, Bucay, Langiden, Sain Isdro, San Quintin, and Danglas, Lumaba of Villaviciosa※ Mabaka* Malibcong*, Lacub* Masadiit* Sallapadan*, Bucloc*, Bucay # Barangays of Bawiyan, Dumagas of Boliney※ Maeng* Luba*, Tubo* some barangays of Villaviciosa; barangays San Ramon and Ayyeng of Manabo※ Muyadan* (considered Manabo #, Barangays Catacdegan and subtribe of Maeng)/ Nuevo of Manabo※ Ammutan※ Sources: Verzola Jr., P. (2007), Begnaden et al. (2023) Legend: * - cited by both sources; # - cited only by Verzola; ※ - cited only by Begnaden et al. The Itnegs/Tingguians had their share in resisting Spanish colonial rule. Dumagat (2001) posited that: Itneg oral accounts sing of the heroism of Sagid, Sayen, Silag and Banaw in their fight against the Spaniards, the last sacrificing his own life to enable his people to escape when he delayed the Spanish advance at a narrow pass at the Banawang Abra River mouth. The oral accounts also preserved the genealogies that relate different families and towns and paved the way to the formation of an Itneg confederation that supported Gabriela Silang’s fight against the Spaniards.... They also played a vital role in the development of northwestern Luzon literacy tradition through the work of Bukaneg, the expansion of trade between the coastal and mountain peoples, and the emergence of a supra-barangay politico-military confederation that threatened Spanish colonialism in the late 18th century. These trends are still observable in the participation of many Itneg youths in nationalistic movements, their continued struggle to keep their ethnic identity, and their fight for a new socio-politico-economic order that will finally put into their hands the destiny of their own people. (para. 3-4) Apayao. It was through RA 7878, which was signed on February 14, 1995, that Apayao became a regular province. It has seven municipalities with a total land area of 4, 502.33 square kilometers. On its East and North is the province of Cagayan, on the West are the provinces of Abra and Ilocos Norte, and on the South is the province of Kalinga. (Caban et al., 2023) During the Spanish colonial period, the people were called los Apayaos or los Mandayas. The term los Apayaos “refers to the river along whose banks the people live” and it stuck to be the name of the province while the term los Mandayas is related to an Isneg word meaning ‘upstream’.” (Reynolds & Grant, 1973, p. 12). Reynolds and Grant added that in the past, the indigenous people of Apayao had no specific name for their group. They usually identified themselves according to where they resided like Imandaya (people living upstream) or Imallod (people living downstream). Their ethnic identity as Isneg or Isnag was probably given by outsiders because while the term Isneg plausibly came from an Ilocano term that means “from Tineg,” (a town and a river in Abra), it later gained the connotation of an “enemy.” However, over the years, the negative meaning was cast-off and the indigenous people of Apayao call themselves as Isneg. Coben (2009) noted that the Isnegs, like their fellow highlanders of northern Luzon, resisted the Spanish colonial rule. While the Spaniards were able to establish three missions in the outskirts of Apayao, such was short-lived due to the constant raids by the Isneg warriors. In 1639, they massacred an entire Spanish garrison in retaliation for its captain’s sexual abuse of an Isneg woman. In an even more spectacular reaction to Spanish intrusion, they killed the friars of two missions … exhorted the converts to return to their ancestral faith, destroyed the mission’s religious objects. Subsequent forays by the Spaniards failed to sudue the Isneg who defeated them in a decisive battle in 1895 (Scott, 1974; Tiongson, 1994, as cited in Coben, 2009, p. 18) The Isnegs’ reputation of being fierce headhunters and their frequent attack of the Cagayan Valley discouraged lowlanders from migrating to the territory of the Isnegs. It was only after the success of the  Unit 1 Lesson 1 3 pacification campaign by the American colonizers that people from the Christianized Ilocos region migrated to the Isnegs’ territory. (Coben, 2009) Baguio City. It is bounded on the north by La Trinidad, on the east by Itogon, and on the west and south by Tuba. It has a total land area of 49 square kilometers (About Baguio, n.d.). It was originally called Kafagway (Ibaloi term which means grassy clearings) as identified in Quirante’s report of his expedition to the mines of Antamok in 1624 (History: Events leading …, n.d.). Quirante noted that the grassy lands were used as pasture lands of the Benguet Igorots, the Ibalois in particular as they were the early settlers of Kafagway which was a rancheria or small settlement of La Trinidad. On November 22, 1900, the Philippine Commission enacted Act No. 48, which established civil governments in the towns of Benguet which included Baguio that absorbed what was once called Kafagway. The name Baguio was derived from the Ibaloi term bagyu or bag-iw (moss). Bag-iw “referred to the basin where moss grew year-round and located at the Guisad Valley (the wide expanse between La Trinidad and Kafagway ).” (Boquiren, 2015a, para. 8) Other Ibaloi terms are used as names of the streets like: Kayang (high); Chuntug (mountain); Chanum (water); Otek (small); Abanao (from ambanaw, Ibaloy term for wide); and, Chugum (from shagem, Ibaloy term for wind). (Pacete, 2013) On August 9, 1909, Act 1963 which incorporated Baguio City and separated it from the direct administration of the province of Benguet was enacted and took effect on September 1, 1909 (which is celebrated every year as the Baguio day). The city, designed for 25,000 people, was also named by the second Philippine Commission as the Summer Capital of the Philippine Archipelago because it is where the colonial administrators retreat to escape the heat of the lowlands during summer (Boquiren, 2015b, para. 8). Luga (2022) added that America’s interest in the city is not only to take advantage of its temperate climate for its tropically ill American troops and employees but also the lure of gold. Luga’s assertion is similar to the comment of Cariño and Resabal, Jr. (1990) that: … Charter was hurriedly approved in 1909, just as the first gold mine, Baguio Gold, started operations. The 49 sq. Kms. land area acquired from the indigenous inhabitants of the Baguio-Benguet territory was to become a trade center, a service city for the mining industry, …, serving as a summer resort for American administrators and soldiers. Around 1/5 ( 677 hectares) of the entire Baguio land area was expropriated to become a colonial military base camp (Camp John Hay). … The mining industry was projected to attract a city population (ideally set by American Architects Daniel Burnham and William Parsons at 25,000 to 30,000) which would serve as a labor pool for the mines, where wages could be earned by migrants to the city. It is sufficient to say … that in the period after World War II, and later in the 1950s, ‘the marginalization of production in the interior and the intrusion of cash economy into their formerly subsistence economies have driven the people (in the Cordillera interior) to the city in search of cash and a more viable means of livelihood’. (pp. 5-6) Based on the quoted narrative, the main factor that made Baguio a multicultural city is internal migration. Mayo and Dacawi (2009) present the order of migration during the American period: First, the construction of the Kennon road brought in construction workers recruited from the Chinese, Japanese, British, Americans, natives of the old Mountain Province, and Ilocanos from Eastern Pangasinan. The Chinese and the Japanese, …, got immediately assimilated into the city’s lifestyle. They were mostly traders and merchants but later also found themselves developing the multi-million-peso highland vegetable industry in the hinterlands of Benguet. They were later joined by the old trading partners of the Ibaloi - Ilocanos from La Union and Ilocos Sur – who plied their trade via the newly opened Naguilian Road. They also engaged in trade and barter, aside from joining the government service or as teachers in the numerous schools which were put up for the city’s primary and secondary education. Second, the Indians came in profusion shortly after the Second World War, and the Batanguenos soon after. The Muslims from the south, the Pampangos, the Visayans and the Bicolanos came soon after. Together with the Americans who stayed behind, these immigrants developed a lifestyle which is uniquely that of Baguio. (para. 19-22) While the Ibalois were the original settlers of Baguio, migration had changed the city’s demographic structure. The largest ethnic group in the city is the Ilocano ethnic group and is followed by the Kankanaey ethnic group. Three in every ten households in the city are of Ilocano ethnicity as of the 2020 census. (Ethnicity in the Cordillera …, 2020) Benguet. RA 4695 divided the old Mountain Province into four provinces, one of which is Benguet. The province has thirteen municipalities with a total land area of 2,769.08 square kilometers. On its north is Mountain Province, on its South is Pangasinan, on its East is Ifugao, and on its West are La Union and Ilocos Sur.  Unit 1 Lesson 1 4 Its three major ethnolinguistic groups are the Ibalois, Kankanaeys, and Kalanguya (History of Benguet, 2022). Verzola, Jr. (2007) earlier noted that while the Ibalois have significant presence in Atok, Baguio City, Bokod, Kabayan, La Trinidad, Sablan, Tuba, and Tublay, the Kankanaeys have significant presence in Mankayan, Bakun, Buguias, and Kibungan. There are scholars who identify these Kankanaeys in Benguet as southern Kankanaeys and those in Mountain Province as northern Kankanaeys. For Kapangan, it is estimated that the Kankanaeys comprise 2/3 and the Ibalois comprise 1/3 of its population. The minority ethnolinguistic groups of Benguet include the Karao whose domicile is “concentrated in the barangays of Karao and Ekip in Bokod” (Reginaldo, 2021, p. 81). While there are members of Kalanguya (Kalangotan/Kallahan), this ethnolinguistic group is predominant in Aritao of Nueva Vizcaya, Carranglan of Nueva Ecija, and Tinoc of Ifugao. As regards its name, the official page of the Municipality of La Trinidad claims that benguet is a “native term which refers to a lake where water does not drain, referring to the former swamp area where no natural drain existed” (La Trinidad history, 2018, para. 7 ). Benguet or Valle de Benguet referred only to what is now known as La Trinidad, it was renamed as Valle de la Trinidad in 1874. In addition, the official page of the province of Benguet claims that in one of the Spanish expeditions, a curious Spanish conquistador … noted that the people wore cloth coverings wrapped around their head several times. … inquired about it, the native explained that … the people wore as protection from the searing cold and winds … termed “benget”. With the western accent of the colonizers “benget” was mispronounced as “benguet”. In time, it eventually became a general reference to the territories of the Iggorotes peopled by the Ibaloi, Kankanaey, Kalangoya, and other minor tribes. (History of Benguet, 2022, para. 4) These Igorots had been trading copper and gold with the lowlanders. The precious metals motivated the Spaniards to venture into the vastness of Benguet but was resisted by the Igorots.... expeditions were dispatched in an attempt to subjugate the lands, gold and people of Benguet. Spanish missionaries likewise came into the mountains either with the expeditions or by themselves. In 1664, the fierce and relentless resistance of the Benguet people made the Spanish rulers decide to withdraw attempts at subjugation as well as the pursuit of Benguet gold. Intermittent incursions into the Benguet mountains and the unceasing resistance of the people by shrewdness and the spear... One such invasion was the battle at Tonglo in 1759. Tonglo, a settlement between present day Baguio City and Tuba, was subjected to five hours of heavy artillery fire then destroyed after a fierce struggle. Although Tonglo was destroyed, the Spaniards withdrew. (History of Benguet, 2022, para. 10-11) Scott (1970) added that what was done to Tonglo was a standard practice of the Spaniards to ‘enter with fire and blood’ in their attempt to subjugate the Igorots. However, the survivors of Tonglo and other Igorot villages that were burned neither surrendered nor submitted. Their standard response was to retreat deeper into the interior of the Cordillera where they endured a more miserable existence. Such is the considerable price the Igorots paid for fighting for their freedom from the Spanish colonial masters. The Benguet people’s resistance to Spanish colonialism was also tested during the 1898 Philippine revolution. They … rallied forth under the leadership of Juan Oraa Carino, Mateo Carantes, Magastino Laruan and Piraso. Benguet was established as a Province in 1899 under the First Philippine Republic with Juan Oraa “Ahino” Carino appointed as Governor and President of the Board. The seat of the provincial government was in Tuel, Tublay. One of the bastions of the First Philippine Republic was in Benguet where the President of the Philippine Congress, Mr. Vicente Patemo, Sr. took refuge and protection.(History of Benguet, 2022, para. 17) Ifugao. Like Benguet, it became a province through RA 4695. It is bounded on the North by Mountain Province, on the East by Isabela, on the West by Benguet, and on the South by Nueva Vizcaya. It has eleven municipalities with a total land area of 2, 618.01 square kilometers. And its three major ethnolinguistic groups are Ayangan (Eastern area of Ifugao which includes Mayoyao, Aguinaldo, Alfonso Lista, and some parts of Banaue and Lamut), Tuwali, (Western area of Ifugao which includes Kiangan, Lagawe, Hingyon, Hungduan, and some parts of Banaue, Asipulo, and Lamut), and Kalanguya (mostly in Tinoc and some parts of Asipulo). (History of Ifugao, n.d.) Ifugao means people of the Earth. It comes from Ipugaw. The prefix I referring to place of origin and Pugaw which in Ifugao’s cosmos refers to the Earthworld where people live separate from where their deities live (Acabado & Martin, 2022). For Dulay et al. (2023), Ipugaw or Ifugao also means ‘from the hill’ or ‘people of the hill.’  Unit 1 Lesson 1 5 In response to Spanish colonialism, the Ifugaos, being veteran warriors, strongly resisted the Spanish military campaigns in their area. (History of Ifugao, n.d.) They attacked the Spaniards’ base of operations in the nearby provinces of Isabela and Nueva Vizcaya inviting a punitive retaliation from the latter who burned crops and killed approximately three Ifugao for every head that the Ifugao warriors had taken (Coben, 2009). The Spanish punitive expeditions resulted in the destruction of the old Kiangan village and 18 other villages ( Acabado & Martin, 2022). However, these punitive expeditions did not weaken the Ifugaos’ resistance which was expressed through military attacks on Spanish military outposts (History of Ifugao, n.d.) and continued refusal of most of them of baptism and taxation (Coben, 2009). In addition, using their archeological data, Acabado and Martin (2022) explain one major factor of the Ifugaos’ success in resisting the Spanish political control. … sixteenth- and seventeenth century Ifugao chose strategically to move to the interior of the Philippine Cordillera, which allowed them to avoid repeated attempts by the colonial government to put them under the Spanish crown. … pericolonial populations (populations on the fringes of the Spanish colonial reach) developed complex political systems that were meant to deal with power relationships within the community and with other Indigenous groups … (pp. 31-32) The terraces are the products of a very rich and complex Ifugao culture that resisted the Spanish conquest for more than 200 years. Archaeological excavations show they were converted to wet rice as a strategy to consolidate economic and political resources that allowed them to resist the marauding Spanish forces less than 400 years ago. It cemented the social order, unified the Ifugao against invasion, and sealed a social organization that maintained the terraces and preserved these mountain settlements. (p. 36) During the 1898 Philippine revolution, Coben (2009) noted that: Ifugao lands became the hideout of the revolutionary forces under General Emilio Aguinaldo. The highlanders, however, did not join the revolution: neither did they easily capitualte to the Americans. Ferocious Ifugao warriors fought American troops with spears. It was not until the Cordillera was pacified, not until schools, clinics and missions were established and roads built to the interior that the Ifugao settled down under the new colonial order. (p. 88) Kalinga. In the Gaddang and Ibanag languages, the term ‘kalinga’ means ‘enemy’, ‘fighter’, or ‘headtaker’. Kalinga is not only the name of the indigenous people but also the province that was carved out from the provinces of Cagayan and Isabela in 1907 and was made a sub-province of Lepanto-Bontoc whose sub-provinces were all annexed to Mountain Province when it was created as a new province in 1908. In 1966, RA 4695 divided the old Mountain Province into four separate provinces. Kalinga and Apayao were made as one province. In 1995, RA 7878 converted the sub-provinces of Kalinga-Apayao into regular provinces. (Brief History, n.d.) It has seven municipalities with a total land area of 3,164.3 square kilometers. On its north are Cagayan and Apayao, on its East are Cagayan and Isabela, on its West is Abra, and on its South is Mountain Province. (Kalinga Profile, n.d.) Kalinga resistance against Spanish colonialism was illustrated in the short-lived 1787 Lagutao revolt. Against the backdrop of famine that resulted from a shortage of field labor caused by many deaths from smallpox that hit the four Christian towns of Carig, Camarag, Angadanan, and Cauayan in Isabela in 1786, Lagutao, a Kalinga, the general name given to mountain pagans during that time in the Cagayan Valley, led a group to confront his younger brother, Liban, who became a Christian and was the sitting mayor of Angadan. During that confrontation which happened during a Palm Sunday, he promised to the discontented “a free mountain life exempt from tribute, tithes and tobacco monopoly.” In response, Mayor Onofre Liban said: Look, Lagutao, you don’t know what you’re doing. Leave your brothers in the Christianity in which they were nurtured and are accustomed. You don’t understand these things because you’re a pagan and believe everything the old folks and shamans say. Your brothers are better off as Christians: we lack nothing, and are always attended by the better justice of the government and the mission. So don’t destroy us all or yourself. ‘You make a fine speech,’ replied Lagutao, ‘but prove nothing. I tell you, brother, that I am taking you all off to the mountains, come what may. Here you are dying of the smallpox the Creator has sent to chastise us for having given up the ways of our ancestors. Moreover, you have to pay tribute as is the custom among Christians, and can’t even take a smoke without buying tobacco with the sweat of your brow. So come with me as the rest of our brothers have done.’ ‘Enough of this,’ the young mayor replied. ‘Cut off my head if you wish, and leave my body here as the sign of my loyalty to God and to King!’ (Scott, 1977, pp. 158-159)  Unit 1 Lesson 1 6 Agitated, the Kalingas reached for their bolos, but Lagutao came between them. What abruptly ended the argument was the information of approaching government troops. Lagutao and his group retreated taking with them rice, cows, and carabaos. There were more than 1,200 local people who heeded Lagutao’s words and followed him along with the children and many invalids carried in hammocks. However, on Holy Wednesday, Lagutao, his brother Meddanang, his son, and eleven others were killed when government troops opened fire at them in a place called Payac. Many more were killed the following day. Many of those who were carried in hammocks were left to die. The news of death greatly affected Mayor Onofre Liban who hardly slept or eaten since the confrontation with his elder brother. Consequently, he died after mass on Easter Day. ( Scott, 1977, p. 159) Tabuk City. Unlike Baguio that is a chartered city or a city that is independent from the jurisdiction of the province where it is located, Tabuk, with a total land area of 700.25 square kilometers, ( History and Background, n.d.) is a component city, meaning it is still under the jurisdiction of the province of Kalinga where it is located and its voters participate in the election of Kalinga provincial officials. Tabuk City is the capital of the province of Kalinga. However, like Baguio, Tabuk is a multicultural city. It was repopulated before World War I by migrants from the Ilocos and ethnolinguistic groups from the region and who all contributed in making Tabuk as the rice granary of the Cordillera region. Its name is derived from tobog , "the name of a living stream with cool and fresh water flowing from Sitio Paligatto in Barangay Balawag down to the Chico River. The areas traversed by this stream were also called TOBOG.” (Ecological Profile, n.d.) It became a city through RA 9404, An Act Converting the Municipality of Tabuk into a Component City of the Province of Kalinga to be Known as the City of Tabuk, which was ratified by the voters of Tabuk on June 23, 2007. Its constitutionality as a city was finally resolved on February 15, 2011. On its North is the municipality of Pinukpuk, on the northwest is the municipality of Rizal, on its east and northeast is the municipality of Quezon, on its east and southeast is Isabela, on its southwest are the municipalities of Lubuagan and Pasil, and on its south are the municipality of Paracelis, Mt. Province and the municipality of Tanudan ( History and Background, n.d.). Mountain Province. The Philippine Commission Act No. 1876, created the old Mountain Province in 1908 with Amburayan, Apayao, Benguet, Lepanto-Bontoc, Ifugao and Kalinga as its sub-provinces. In 1920, Amburayan was dissolved and parts of it were transferred to the provinces of Ilocos Sur and La Union. In 1966, RA 4695 was enacted and it divided the old Mountain Province into four independent provinces. These are the provinces of Benguet, Ifugao, Kalinga-Apayao, and Mountain Province whose town capital is Bontoc. Mountain Province has ten municipalities with a total land area of 2,389.43 square kilometers. (Geography, n.d.) Its major indigenous peoples are: Applai/Aplai who were originally called northern Kankanaey/Kankanay (southern kankanaey/kankanay for Benguet) are dominant in the municipalities of Bauko, Besao, Sabangan, Sagada, and Tadian; Bontok dominates Bontoc and Sadanga; Balangao and its two subgroups Hak’ki and Majukayong dominate Natonin; Gaddang and its subgroup Baliwon dominate Paracelis; ; and Changyasan/Lias, Ifiallig/Fialika, and Kachakran dominate Barlig (Pangket et al., 2023). Concept Checks 1. Why is the region called Cordillera? 2. Identify the ethnolinguistic group/s that predominate in each province/city of the Cordillera region 3. How did the Igorots respond to Spanish colonial rule? 4. What lesson did you learn from the Igorots’ response to colonialism that you can apply to your personal life in this era of social media which is the new colonizer of the mind? References About Baguio (n.d). https://new.baguio.gov.ph/about-baguio/#History Acabado, S. B. & Martin, M. (2022). Indigenous archaeology in the Philippines: Decolonizing Ifugao history. Tucson : University of Arizona Press. Act No. 48 (1900, November 22). An Act providing for the establishment of local civil governments in the townships of the province of Benguet. https://lawyerly.ph/laws/view/l3d4f Act No. 1963 (1909, August 09). An Act to incorporate the City of Baguio and for other purposes. https://lawyerly.ph/laws/view/l2a3f Begnalen, N.B., Elvena, P.D., Benedito, P.A., Bagioan, E.D., Dayag, A.J., Barzuela, M.E., & Alejandre, L.S. Abra Heritage (Paper Presentation). HERITAGE FITS (Faculty Immersion and Training Services). University of Baguio.Ifugao heritage. Boquiren, R.R. (2015, August 23). Baguio’s history and cultural heritage. Northern Dispatch. https://nordis.net/2015/08/23/article/baguios-history-and-cultural-heritage/ Brief History. (n.d.) Province of Kalinga. https://kalingaprovince.gov.ph/historical-background/ Caban, R.M., Mayodong, A.M., Maslang Jr., C.L., Pattung, A.G., de la Cruz, J.B., Dugay, F.T., & Mabborang, F.D.N. (2023). Apayao heritage. Apayao Heritage (Paper Presentation). HERITAGE FITS (Faculty Immersion and Training Services). University of Baguio.Ifugao heritage.  Unit 1 Lesson 1 7 Carino, J.K. & Resabal, Jr., P. (1990). Study of the displaced families in Apugan, Loakan, Baguio City. CSC Working Paper 17. UP College Bauio, Baguio City: Cordillera Studies Center. Dulay, M.J., Nangpuhan, D.G.G., Ngohayon, S, L., & Codamon-Dugyon, E.M. (29-30 August, 2023). Ifugao Heritage (Paper Presentation). HERITAGE FITS (Faculty Immersion and Training Services). 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