Overview of Indian Society PDF

# Overview of Indian Society ## Syllabus and Synopsis of the Chapter: - Multi-cultural Diversity of Indian Society - Demographic Composition/Population Distribution: - Religion - Caste - Gender - Linguistic Diversity - Regional Variations: - Rural Characteristics - Urban Character...

# Overview of Indian Society ## Syllabus and Synopsis of the Chapter: - Multi-cultural Diversity of Indian Society - Demographic Composition/Population Distribution: - Religion - Caste - Gender - Linguistic Diversity - Regional Variations: - Rural Characteristics - Urban Characteristics - Tribal Characteristics - Diversity as Difference # India as a Multi-cultural Society Indian society is pluralistic in nature. Pluralism refers to the existence of groups within a nation or society with differences in ethnic origin, cultural patterns, language, religion, etc. India as we see today consists of several groups with different identities, i.e., multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, multi-religious and multi-cultural. ## The Main Characteristics of Indian Culture are: 1. **Multi-Lingual:** It is estimated that there are 1652 languages and dialects in India. The Constitution of India has recognized 24 major official languages. Hindi is the most widely spoken language, followed by Bengali and Telugu. English is spoken fluently by about 2% to 3% of India's population. Another 7% to 8% can merely understand simple English and speak broken English. 2. **Multi-Religion:** India has no official religion. But the major religions of the world are in existence in India. Four important religions have originated from India - Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. As per 2011 Census, 80.5% of India's population follows Hinduism, followed by Islam (13.4%) and 6.1% of the population follow other religions. 3. **Caste System:** One of the striking characteristics of Indian culture is the caste system. The Indian Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Order 1950 lists 1108 castes. Traditional Hindu society was divided into four 'Varnas' based on the occupation of an individual: - Brahmin - Kshatriya - Vaishya - Shudra Each caste has its own rules and regulations, values, institutions, festivals, etc. Gradually, the caste system underwent a change. The basis of birth replaced occupation as the criterion to determine one's caste. 4. **Intra-group Cultural Differences:** There are intra-group differences. For instance, each caste has sub-castes with sub-cultures. Even in the case of religion, there are intra-group cultural differences. 5. **Influence of the Western Culture:** Indian culture came under the Western cultural influence with the arrival of Portuguese in Goa in the 16th century, and later the British, French and the Dutch in other parts of India in the 17th century. Due to western cultural impact, several elements of Indian culture have undergone several changes in food habits, music and dance, clothing, life-styles, education and so on. 6. **Contributions from Various Races:** Indian culture has grown over the years due to the contributions from various ethnic races. The Proto-Australoids made contributions to the art of pottery, cultivation of fruits and vegetation. They developed the village culture based on agriculture. - The Dravidians developed the city-culture. They built the city of Indus Valley. The Dravidian language is the mother of South Indian languages, i.e., Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, and Malayalam. The Dravidian social customs and traditions are being used by Hindus for performing certain rites and rituals. - The Indo-Aryans contributed the Vedic literature. The bases of our present socio-economic, cultural and religious ideas and institutions are greatly influenced by Vedic literature of the Aryans. - The Islamic culture has also influenced the Indian society through architecture, dress, and ladies belonging to any race or religion, food and cuisine, etc. # Demographic Composition Demography is a study of different aspects of population. India occupies about 2.4% (32.9 lakh sq.km) of the world's land area. India is the seventh largest country by area in the world. But it has 17.5% (2011 Census) of the world population. 60% of India's population lives in 6 states - UP, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, MP and Tamil Nadu. It is estimated that by 2025, India will be the most populous country, surpassing China. As of May 20, 2019, India's population was 1367 million or 136.7 crore. # Religion-wise Composition of Population Four prominent religions emerged from India, i.e. Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. Other religions such as Christianity, Islam, Zoroastrianism, and Judaism are followed by certain sections in India. Majority of India's population follow Hinduism followed by Islam, and other religions. | Religion | Percent | Persons (Crores) | |---|---|---| | Hinduism | 79.8 | 96.63 | | Islam | 14.2 | 17.22 | | Christianity | 2.3 | 2.78 | | Sikhism | 1.7 | 2.08 | | Buddhism | 0.7 | 0.84 | | Jainism | 0.4 | 0.45 | | Others | 0.9 | 1.08 | | Total | 100.0 | 121.08 | **Source:** Census 2011 India has no official or State religion. The Constitution of India guarantees the freedom of religion. One can follow and practice religion of his/her choice. The main religions are briefly stated as follows: **1. Hinduism:** Majority of Indians follow Hinduism. Bhagavad-Gita is the holy book of the Hindus. Hinduism advocates the four main values - Dharma, Artham, Kama and Moksha. The four are based on the understanding that the humans have varied needs. The four values are: - **Dharma** - refers to duties which individuals must fulfill. Dharma also includes virtues. A person with virtues will perform the duty with discipline and dedication. Virtue leads to reflection over right and wrong. - **Artha** - refers to a desire for power over nature and man; and also a desire for wealth. - **Kama** - means the desire for pleasure through five senses of sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell under the control of mind. - **Moksha** - refers to a state of liberation. Hindu culture prescribes two stages in attaining Moksha: - **Pravrtti Marg** - consists of satisfaction of bodily needs and enjoyment of desirable objects of the world. - **Nivrtti Marg** - which consists of developing detachment from materialistic things of the world. **2. Islam:** This religion does not believe in idol worship. It considers Prophet Mohammed as the greatest prophet and the Koran as the most sacred book. Islam prescribes five primary duties of a devout Muslim: - Belief in Allah - Prayers five times a day - Giving of alms - Fasting for a month every year (during Ramzan). - Pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime. **3. Christianity:** Christian faith was introduced in India by Apostle Thomas, who reached Malabar Coast (Kerala) in 52 AD. The Christianity gained roots in India especially after the Portuguese invasion in Goa in the early 16th century and later by the British in the 17th century. The holy book of Christians is the Bible. Christian religion is based on the 10 commandments of the Lord: - You shall have no other God before me. - You shall not take the name of your God in vain. - Remember the Sabbath Day, to keep it holy. - Honour your father and your mother. - You shall not murder. - You shall not commit adultery. - You shall not steal. - You shall not bear false witness against your neighbour. - You shall not covet your neighbour's wife. - You shall not covet anything that belongs to your neighbour. **4. Sikhism:** Its founder Guru Nanak and the later nine Gurus who followed him preached against the hypocrisy in religion. The holy book of the Sikhs is Guru Granth Sahib. The religious symbols of Sikhism are five ‘Ks': - Kesh (hair) - Kangha (comb) - Kara (bracelet) - Kirpan (sword) - Kachha (shorts) **5. Buddhism:** Buddhists follow the teachings of Lord Gautam Buddha. About 85% of Buddhists in India are located in Maharashtra. Hinayana and Mahayana are the two major schools of thought in Buddhism. Tripitaka is the holy book of Buddhism. The main aim of Buddhism is to attain Nirvana (ultimate spiritual goal). Nirvana means to achieve enlightenment (perfect peace and happiness). The Buddha's teachings highlighted Four Noble Truths: - All existence is dukkha – Human life is full of struggle or sorrow. - The cause of dukkha is craving – Desire is the root cause of sorrow. - The cessation of dukkha comes with the cessation of craving - Removal of desire leads to removal of sorrow. - There is a path that leads from dukkha – There is a path (Eightfold Path) that helps to remove sorrow and attain nirvana. The Buddha's 'Noble Eightfold Path' is stated as follows: - Right view - Right intention - Right speech - Right action - Right livelihood - Right effort - Right mindfulness - Right concentration **6. Jainism:** The followers of Jainism are mostly located in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan. They follow the preaching of Lord Mahavira. Lord Mahavira is the 24th Tirthankar of Jainism. The texts containing the teachings of Lord Mahavira are called as Agamas. Digambar and Shwetambar are the two sects of Jainism. The three guiding principles or 'three jewels' of Jainism are: - Right Perception (Samyak Darshana) - Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnana) - Right Conduct (Samyak Chritra) Inorder to promote spiritual development and achieve liberation, Jainism has laid down five main vows: - Ahimsa (Non-violence) - Satya (Truth) - Asteya (Not stealing) - Brahmacharya (Chastity or Celibacy) - Aparigraha (Renunciation or Detachment) **7. Judaism:** It is the religion, philosophy and way of life of Jewish people. Judaism is based on laws and commandments that God revealed to Moses on Mount Sinai. The holiest book of Jews is Torah (set of five books of Moses). Jews are religious minority in India. Judaism was one of the first foreign religions to arrive in India in recorded history. Of the total Jewish population in India, 50% lives in Manipur and Mizoram and 25% in Mumbai. **8. Zoroastrianism:** The Zoroastrians or the Parsees follow the teachings of the religious teacher Zoroaster. The principles of this religion (mentioned in the Zend Avesta - holy book) include belief in afterlife and in the continuous struggle of the universal spirit of good versus evil. The Parsees are a very small minority and are mostly located in Mumbai. # Caste Wise Composition of Indian Population The word 'caste' comes from the Spanish word 'Casta', which means race or breed. The caste system (as a form of social stratification) is peculiar to India. The caste system is an integral part of traditional Hindu social organisation, although many of its features are found in other religious groups like Christians, Muslims, and Sikhs. There is no single valid theory that could explain the origin of caste. Some scholars equate the caste system with the original old Varna system, which classified individuals into four groups: - **Brahmins** – religious preachers, scholars, teachers and the like. - **Kshatriyas** – rulers, administrators and warriors. - **Vaishyas** – money lenders, artisans, traders, and the like. - **Shudras** - workers or labourers The Indian Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Order 1950 lists 1108 castes. The 2011 Census states that 16.6% of the population belongs to scheduled castes and 8.6% of the population to scheduled tribes. ## Factors Responsible for Growth of Caste System in India: (a) The influence of religion is the main factor for growth of caste system in India. The Hindu Caste System is looked upon as divine ordained institution. Beliefs in reincarnation and the doctrine of Karma also have fostered the caste system in India. (b) The static rural social structure of India strengthened the growth of caste system. (c) Lack of education, especially among the rural masses has contributed to the growth of caste system in India. Due to illiteracy, people have become orthodox and they blindly accept the caste rules and restrictions. (d) The existence of many races in India resulted in the formulation of strict laws regarding discrimination, as each race made efforts to preserve its purity. (e) The rulers did not enforce uniform customs, and they recognised the various customs of different groups of people, which in turn encouraged the caste system in India. (f) The hereditary occupations of the people, especially in rural areas kept alive the caste system in India. (g) The desire to dominate of the upper castes, especially, the Brahmins over the lower castes gave fillip to the growth of caste system in India. (h) Other factors that contributed to the growth of caste system in India include - the desire of Brahmins to keep them pure; ancestor worship; idea of exclusive family, etc. # Gender Wise Composition of Population Gender ratio is the ratio of females to males in the country. The study of gender ratio helps to understand the situation of women in India. In India, the gender ratio is skewed or biased in favour of males. The following table indicates the male and female population as per Census 2011. | Gender | Population (million) | |---|---| | Male | 623.7 | | Female | 586.5 | | Total | 1210.2 | The data below indicates that the gender ratio of 940 females to 1000 males. The gender ratio has improved in 2011 as compared to 2001. Among the states, Kerala has the highest gender ratio of 1084 females to 1000 males and Haryana has the lowest gender ratio of 877 females to 1000 males in 2011. | Year | Females (per 1000 Males) | |---|---| | 1901 | 972 | | 1921 | 955 | | 1951 | 946 | | 1961 | 941 | | 1971 | 930 | | 1981 | 934 | | 1991 | 927 | | 2001 | 933 | | 2011 | 940 | **Source:** Census Reports. It is to be noted that although the overall gender ratio has improved in 2011 as compared to 2001, but the child gender ratio (0 to 6 years) has declined to 614 females to 1000 males as against 927 females to 1000 males in 2001. ## Some of the reasons for skewed gender ratio are: - Preference for male child in Indian societies. - Practice of female feticide. - High infant mortality rate of females. - Malnutrition of females, especially among the poor families. # Linguistic Diversity India is a land of multi-lingual people. The Constitution of India has recognized 22 major official languages. However, there are as many as 1652 languages and dialects that are spoken in India. 350 languages of India are considered as major languages. With reference to language, India officially follows a three language policy. ## Broadly, the languages spoken in India belong to four families of languages: - **Indo-Aryan family of languages:** It is the most important family of Indian languages. It comprises of all principal languages of Northern and Western India such as Hindi, Marathi, Bengali, Urdu, Gujarati, Punjabi, Sindhi, Kashmiri, Oriya, Konkani, Sanskrit, Pahari, Rajasthani, Bihari, Assamese, and so on. It accounts for about 72% of India's population. - **Dravidian family of languages:** It is the second important family of languages in India. It is mostly spoken in Southern India. It includes Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil and Telugu, Tulu, etc. It covers about 25% of India's population. - **Sino-Tibetan family of languages:** It covers areas of North Bihar, North Bengal and North Assam. Important languages of this group of languages include: Sikkimese, Ladakhi, Sherpa, Bodo, Naga, Manipuri, Tipra (Tirupuri) and so on. These languages are considered to be older than the Indo-Aryan languages. - **Austric:** The Austric languages of India belong to the Austro-Asiatic sub-family, which are represented by languages of the Munda or Kol Group, spoken in the central, eastern and north-eastern India; and languages of the Mon-Khmer group like Khasi and Nicobarese. The most important language of the Austric group is Santhali, which is spoken by over 5 million Santhals and is the largest spoken among the Adivasi languages. Mundari, spoken by about a million Mundas, is another important language of this group. # Major Languages: The following are the 22 languages recognized in the 8th Schedule of Indian Constitution: 1. Assamese 2. Bengali 3. Bodo 4. Dogri 5. Gujarati 6. Hindi 7. Kannada 8. Kashmiri 9. Konkani 10. Malayalam 11. Manipuri 12. Marathi 13. Nepali 14. Oriya 15. Punjabi 16. Maithili 17. Sanskrit 18. Santhali 19. Sindhi 20. Tamil 21. Telugu 22. Urdu Majority of the population speak Hindi (about 41%) followed by Bengali (8.1%), Telugu (7.1%) and Marathi (7%). ## Top 10 Official Languages in India: | Language | Percent | |---|---| | Hindi | 41.03 | | Bengali | 8.11 | | Telugu | 7.19 | | Marathi | 6.99 | | Tamil | 5.91 | | Urdu | 5.01 | | Gujarati | 4.48 | | Kannada | 3.69 | | Malayalam | 3.21 | | Oriya | 3.21 | **Source:** Census 2011 ## States on Language Basis: In India, the States are formed mostly on the basis of language. Even after Independence, some states were created on the language basis. For instance, Punjab was divided into Punjab and Haryana in 1966, and Bombay State was divided into Maharashtra and Gujarat in 1960. Before Independence, Odisha was the first state to be formed on the basis of language in 1936. After independence, Andhra Pradesh was the first state formed on linguistic basis in 1953.. ## Official Language of India: Hindi is the official language of India, and English is the associate language. The Official Language Bill was introduced in the Lok Sabha in 1963. This Bill provides that the English language may be used in addition to Hindi as an official language. In 1965, Hindi was made the Principal Official Language of India. This led to anti-Hindi riots in Southern India and West Bengal in 1967. The anti-Hindi agitation was so strong in Tamil Nadu that it almost separated Tamil Nadu from the rest of the country. Therefore, in 1968, the Parliament passed the Official (Amendment) Act, 1968. This Act gave a statutory guarantee to non-Hindi speaking states that English would not be replaced by Hindi for any official purposes, unless and until the States are ready for switch over. The adoption of this Bill led to the anti-English riots in parts of North India. In repulsion, there were again anti-Hindi riots in Southern States. ## Official Language of the States: As far as States are concerned, the Indian Constitution has allowed the respective State Legislatures to recognize some language(s) for intra-state official transactions. This provision, thus, recognize the right of substantial section of State’s population to have the language spoken by them to be recognized for official purposes within the State. # Regional Variations In India, there are 29 States and 7 Union Territories. The States differ in terms of quality of people, culture and resources. Therefore, there are regional variations or differences among the States, and also among the sub-regions of each State. ## Some regions are developed. Others have remained backward, even with 7 decades of independence. The most backward region is the north-east, whereas, the western and southern regions have shown improvement in economic and social development since independence. The various regional differences are as follows: 1. **Literacy:** For the purpose of census, a person who can both read and write with understanding in any language is treated as literate. In India, the States differ in terms of literacy rates. Some States like Kerala, Mizoram, Tripura and Goa, the literacy rate is high, whereas, in Bihar, Arunachal Pradesh, Rajasthan and Jharkhand the literacy rate is low. For instance, Kerala has highest literacy of about 94% and Bihar has the lowest literacy of 64% as per 2011 census. The female literacy is very low, especially in the backward States. The low level of literacy, (especially among the poor), is one of the reasons for high birth rate in the backward States, as compared to the top literate States. 2. **Birth Rate and Death Rate:** In the highly populated and backward States of North India - in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and UP, the birth rate is very high, as compared to more literate Southern States - Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Also, the death rate is high in the backward States. 3. **Urbanization:** In India, there is imbalance in terms of urbanization of population. In some regions, the urban population has increased over the years; whereas, certain backward regions are very slow in the growth of urban population. Some States, especially, the smaller States of Goa and Mizoram, there is higher concentration of population in urban areas, whereas, in backward States of Madhya Pradesh and Bihar, there is very low concentration of urban population. 4. **Poverty:** In India, about 37% of population lives below poverty line (according to Suresh Tendulkar Committee estimates of 2009). According to Planning Commission, the poverty in the country has declined to 21.9% (2011-12). As per World Bank Report (2014), 11.8% population in India lives below poverty line. There is widespread poverty in some states. The highest poverty is in Orissa, followed by Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. The low poverty States are Goa, Jammu & Kashmir and Punjab. 5. **Infrastructure Development:** There is regional imbalance in infrastructure development. There is low level of infrastructure development such as transport, communication, banking, etc., in most of the States, especially the northern and eastern States. For instance, it is estimated that nearly 50% of the villages in India, (most of them in backward states - BIMARU States - Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and UP) do not have proper roads and therefore, lack transport facilities. 6. **Level of Unemployment:** The overall unemployment situation in India is equally worse. While unemployment exists in all the States of India, its incidence is very high, at over 10% in the most literate States of Kerala, Goa and Tamil Nadu. In the poor States like Orissa, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and UP, while the unemployment rates are lower, but the labourers are exploited with very low wages. 7. **Industrialization:** There is regional imbalance as far as industries are concerned. Certain States like Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka have made good progress in industrialization. But many States lack behind, especially, the north eastern States. Industrialization is also weak in southern States like Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. 8. **Income Inequalities:** In India, there are glaring income inequalities. The income inequalities are glaring mostly in the highly populated States of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and UP. The reasons for inequalities are: - Unemployment among the poor people. - Low wages for labourers, especially in the unorganized sector. - Lack of financial inclusion. Poor people in the backward states depend on money lenders for the loan requirements. The money lenders exploit the poor by charging high interest rates. 9. **Gender-Ratio:** In India, the gender ratio is in favour of males. However, there are imbalances in gender ratio across the States. Kerala is the only State where females outnumber males. Haryana is the worst State as far as gender ratio is concerned. The southern States are better in terms of female-male ratio, whereas, northern States show a deteriorating situation. 10. **Life Expectancy:** There are regional differences in respect of life expectancy as well. Biologically, the females are expected to live longer than males. But in certain States of India, the life expectancy of females is less than the males. In particular, States like Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and UP, have low life expectancy for females as compared to males. But in Southern States like Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, the life expectancy of females is higher. # Rural Characteristics India is a land of villages. As per Census 2011, there are over 6 lakh villages in India. 68.84% of India's population lives in villages, and 31.16% of India's population lives in urban areas (about 7700 towns and cities). ## The characteristics of rural India are briefly stated as follows: 1. **Caste System:** In Indian villages, the caste system is widespread. There is hardly any village without the castes. Each village has several castes, although in some villages a particular caste dominates. There is inter-dependence of castes in villages due to the specialized occupations. 2. **Intimate Relations:** In Indian villages, there are face-to-face relations among the people. Generally, every person knows each other in the village. This is because; the village population is of small size, and therefore, personal contact or relations can be maintained through regular interactions. 3. **Status of Women:** The rural women are very much dependent on their men folk. The women require the support of institutions like marriage and family. The rural women mostly engage in indoor activities and they work in fields as well. They are very much attached to their family members. Women adjust themselves to the family conditions, and make sacrifices in the interest of the family. 4. **Occupation:** The rural people are mostly engaged in agriculture. About 80% of village people are directly or indirectly connected with agriculture and other related areas. Therefore, the prosperity of rural areas is directly connected with agriculture. 5. **Size of the Population:** Majority of India's population lives in villages. As per 2011 census, 68.84% of India's total population lives in villages. In advanced countries, the rural population forms a small part of the total population. As per World Development Indicators (2011), Japan - 9%, Australia - 11% and USA - 18% of the population are rural based. The main reason for majority of population in rural India is due to developing nature of Indian economy, and majority of the workers (about 55% in 2011) were engaged in agriculture. Therefore, due to employment factor, people get concentrated in rural areas. 6. **Location Pattern:** The rural population lives in about 6,41,000 villages. The population in rural areas is scattered rather than concentrated. At present, only about 4000 villages has a population of 10,000 plus. In 2,36,000 villages, the population is less than 500 persons. 7. **Literacy:** The literacy level of rural people is low as compared to urban population. In 2011, the overall literacy rate in India was about 74%. But the rural literacy rate in many States was less than 50%. The low literacy rate is due to lack of educational facilities in villages, and poverty among the rural masses. 8. **Conservative Attitude:** People in Indian villages are largely conservative in nature. They do not easily accept changes in principles, policies, and programmes. They go by majority opinion and belief. Most of the villages in India are backward mainly because of the conservative attitude of the villagers. 9. **Unemployment Rate:** The unemployment rate is high in rural areas as compared to urban areas on Current Daily Status (CDS). The CDS is the most embracive estimate of unemployment as it includes unemployment as well as underemployment. The two other estimates are Current Weekly Status (CWS), and Usual Principal and Subsidiary Status (UPSS). As per 2011-12 estimates, about 5.7% of the workforce in rural areas was unemployed as per CDS basis, as compared to 5.5% in urban areas. However, under UPSS basis the unemployment rate in 2011-12 was 1.7% as compared to 3.4% of the urban areas. 10. **Media Exposure:** The media exposure of rural masses is comparatively low as compared to urban areas. The percentage of rural households reached by television and print media is lower due to poverty and lack of education. Maximum exposure to media is that of radio. Due to low media exposure, the Government campaigns on family welfare and other social issues do not reach to the masses in villages. 11. **Poverty:** 21.92% of India's population lives below poverty line in 2011-12. In rural areas, percent of people living below poverty line is 25.70%. The rural poverty is very high, especially, in the States of Orissa, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. The main causes of rural poverty are: - High growth of population, especially among the poor. - Social exploitation by the landlords of the farm labourers. - Malpractices by money lenders. - Poor implementation of anti-poverty measures. 12. **Work Participation Rate:** The work participation rate is the ratio of total workforce to total population. The work participation rate in rural areas is comparatively similar for males (53%) as in urban areas (53.8%). As far as female workers are concerned, the work participation rate is 30% comparatively higher than in urban areas (15.4%). | | Rural (%) | Urban (%) | |---|---|---| | Males | 53.0 | 53.8 | | Females | 30.0 | 15.4 | **Source:** Census of 2011 13. **Main Problems:** The main problems faced by rural population include: - Lack of infrastructure facilities such as roads, transport, electricity, etc. - Low level of literacy. - Higher incidence of poverty as compared to urban areas. - Social exploitation by landlords, and others. - Disguised and seasonal unemployment. # Urban Characteristics The urbanization in India has improved over the years. In 1951, the urban population was 17% and it has increased to nearly 31.16% in 2011. ## The following are the main characteristics of urban India: 1. **Social Heterogeneity:** Urban society is heterogeneous in nature. There are wide differences in the way of life of urban people. The urban masses are mainly diverse in nature. Especially, in the major metros like Mumbai and Delhi, the urban people may speak different languages, follow different customs and traditions, different food habits, and so on. 2. **Secondary Relations:** In urban areas, people are mostly indifferent towards one another. In cities, people rarely take personal interest in others. Superficial form of politeness and manners are commonly found. Even the neighbours behave like strangers. In urban areas, people are more individualistic in their attitude. 3. **Social Mobility:** Urban people are socially mobile as compared to rural folk. Social mobility refers to movement of people from one social status to another, i.e., from lower status to higher status in the society. In urban areas, an individual's position is determined more by his achievements rather than by his birth. 4. **Size of the Population:** In 2011, about 377.1 million people were living in urban areas in India. India is comparatively lagging in terms of urbanization as compared to developed countries. In 2011, the urban population of select countries is as follows: | Country | % of Urban Population (2011) | |---|---| | India | 31 | | Russia | 74 | | USA | 82 | | Japan | 91 | | UK | 80 | | Australia | 89 | **Source:** World Development Indicators 5. **Location Pattern:** The urban population is located in about 5545 towns and cities. The towns and cities are broadly divided into six classes such as Class I, Class II, .... Class VI. The population criterion for towns/cities: | Towns/Cities | Population | |---|---| | Class I | 1,00,000 and above | | Class II | 50,000 to 99,999 | | Class III | 20,000 to 49,999 | | Class IV | 10,000 to 19,999 | | Class V | 5,000 to 9,999 | | Class VI | Below 5,000 | Over 70% of urban population is located in Class I cities. As per 2011 census, the population of Greater Mumbai is 20.5 million followed by Delhi 16.7 million. 6. **Literacy:** The urban literacy rate is comparatively higher as compared to rural literacy. Most of the major cities/towns have a literacy rate of over 70%. The highest literacy rate in 2011 was recorded in Kerala at over 93%. 7. **Occupation:** The urban population is mostly engaged in the services sector, followed by the secondary sector. It is obvious that the urban population is not involved in agriculture directly. They may be involved indirectly in the agro-based industries, or in the services sector that support agriculture. 8. **Unemployment:** Urban areas also face unemployment. However, the unemployment rate has declined in urban areas more sharply than that of rural areas on the basis of CDS. In 2011-12, the unemployment rate in urban areas on CDS basis was 5.5% as compared to 5.7% in rural areas. 9. **Media Exposure:** The media exposure of urban population is comparatively higher as compared to rural areas. Most of the urban population is exposed to radio, TV and internet. However, the penetration of press is low. Due to good media exposure, the Government campaigns on family welfare and on social awareness reach to the urban masses. This has helped to reduce birth rate and also improved literacy rate in urban areas. 10. **Poverty:** The poverty in urban areas is lower as compared to rural areas. In 2011-12, people living below poverty line in urban India are 13.70%. The urban poverty is due to: - Unemployment. - Large sized families, especially among the slum dwellers. - Social evils, such as gambling, alcoholism, etc. 11. **Work Participation Rate:** The work participation rate for males in rural areas (53%) is comparatively similar as in urban areas (53.8%). As far as female workers are concerned, the work participation rate is 30% in rural areas which is comparatively higher than in urban areas (15.4%). 12. **Main problems of Urban Population:** The main problems faced by urban population include: - Pollution which affects health. - Congestion – about 40 to 50% of the population live in highly congested slums. - Higher level of unemployment, which results in anti-social activities by unemployed. - Low sex ratio, which results in sexual abuse against women. - Overcrowding in public transport like trains, and buses. - High income inequalities between the rich and the poor. # Tribal Characteristics A tribe is a community occupying a common geographic area and having a common language and culture. The tribes are often called as ‘Girijans' because originally they used to live in jungles and hilly regions. Some scholars are of the view that the lower castes who resisted oppression of the upper castes and preferred to live independent lives, retired to the forests, and are today they are called as tribes of India. Tribes are referred as Scheduled Tribes in the Indian Constitution. It was Dr. B. R. Ambedkar (the chairman of the drafting committee of the