Theories of Human Behavior 2025 PDF

THEORIES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR Prepared by Dr/Samah Mohamed El-Sayed Lecturer of Psychiatric &Mental Health Nursing 2025-2024  Introduction There are a variety of theories that explain the development of human personality, interpret human...

THEORIES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR Prepared by Dr/Samah Mohamed El-Sayed Lecturer of Psychiatric &Mental Health Nursing 2025-2024  Introduction There are a variety of theories that explain the development of human personality, interpret human behavior, mental health as well as mental illness. Studying these theories always end up by recommending specific methods of treatment to.change client’s pathological behavior  Psychoanalytic Theories Early psychoanalytic theories of human behavior were set forth most notably.Sigmund Freud by Austrian neurologist Freud’s most basic hypothesis was that each child is born with a source of.libido basic psychological energy called Further, each child’s libido becomes successively focused on various parts of.development the body in the course of his or her emotional  -:The theory is based on 3 main concepts there are Personality structure-1 Dynamics of personality-2 State of consciousness (conscious - unconscious--3.preconscious)  Personality Structure -1 Freud (1923) later developed a more structural model of the mind comprising the entities id, ego, and superego, all developing at different stages in our lives. These are systems, not physical areas within the brain, but rather hypothetical conceptualizations of important mental.functions  CONTINUED-Personality structure The id is the most primitive part of the personality and instinctual part of the mind contains such as hunger, thirst, sexual and aggressive drives and.hidden memories.That is the source of all our most basic urges- The id is entirely unconscious and serves/work as the source of all libidinal -.energy The id operates according to the pleasure principle, in a way that it tries to-.avoid pain and seek pleasure The ego is the component of personality that deals with ”reality, or the “reality portion of the personality It helps ensure that the demands of the Id are satisfied in -.ways that are realistic, safe, and socially acceptable It developed during 4-6 months of life- The ego's goal is to satisfy the demands of the id in a safe a- socially acceptable way. In contrast to the id, the ego follows the reality principle as it operates in both the conscious and.unconscious mind The superego is the part of the personality that holds all of the internalized morals and standards of society that.we acquire from our parents, family, and society at large It develops around 3 – 5 years during the phallic stage-.psychosexual development of The superego develops during early childhood (when- the child identifies with the same-sex parent) and is.responsible for ensuring moral standards are followed.is responsible for gender identity and sexual orientation For example, the superego can make a person feel guilty if rules are not followed. When there is a conflict between the goals of the id and superego, the ego must act as a referee and mediate this conflict. The ego can deploy/produce various defense mechanisms to prevent it from becoming.overwhelmed by anxiety Freud assumed the id operated at an unconscious level according to the pleasure principle (gratification from satisfying basic instincts). The id comprises two kinds of biological instincts (or drives) which Freud called.Eros and Thanatos The Id, Ego, And Superego Have Most Commonly Been Conceptualized As Three Essential Parts Of The Human. Personality :Dynamics of personality -2 A. Eros, or life instinct, helps the individual to survive; it directs life-sustaining activities such as respiration, hunger, thirst, and sex (Freud, 1925). The energy created by the life.instincts is known as libido : Dynamics Of Personality - B. Thanatos or death instinct, is viewed as a set of destructive forces present in all human beings (Freud, 1920). When this energy is directed outward onto others, it is expressed as.aggression and violence Freud believed that every person has an unconscious desire to- die, this desire drives him to whatever may lead to his death (destruction and aggression) Freud believed that Eros is stronger than Thanatos, thus enabling -.people to survive rather than self-destruct Freudian psychology compares the mind to an iceberg. The tip of the iceberg that is actually visible above the water represents just a tiny portion of the mind, while the huge expanse of ice hidden.underneath the water represents the much larger unconscious :States of consciousness -3 -:A- The unconscious level Is the largest part of the mind and consists of repressed memories, thoughts, feelings and instinctual impulses. Sometimes, some of this storage actively seeks expression on the conscious level. It usually appears in a symbolic way in the form of dreams, slips of the tongue.or in anger B- Pre-conscious (subconscious) level This is the area between the conscious and the unconscious levels. It - contains the ideas and memories which are not available at present in the conscious area but could recall when the need arises. They require only recall to be brought to full awareness. In this level, memories, social,.moral and religious value are stored C- The conscious level Is composed of all idea, feelings, motives, thoughts, desires and-.awareness of the present time and place incidents.It is considered the stage for purposeful behavior- It includes all experiences that are within a person’s awareness at any - given time.It is thought to be under the control of the ego- Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual development stages -2 Freud suggests that children are born with a libido – a sexual (pleasure) urge, they progress/ develop through a series of psychosexual stages. At each stage,.the libido's pleasure-seeking energy is focused on a different part of the body.The five stages of psychosexual development are During the first postnatal year, libido is initially focused on the mouth and its activities;-1 nursing enables the infant to derive gratification through a pleasurable reduction of tension.in the oral region. Freud called this the oral stage of development During the second year, the source of excitation is said to shift to the-2 anal area, and the start of toilet training leads the child to invest libido in the anal functions. Freud called this period of development the.anal stage During the period from three through six years, the child’s attention-3 is attracted to the penis or clitoris , and Freud called this stage the.phallic stage  4-The half dozen years before puberty are called the latency stage. The latent stage: A period of calm in which little libidinal interest is present. In this stage, Freud believed sexual impulses are repressed, leading to a period of.relative calm During the final and so-called genital stage of development, mature-5 gratification is sought in a heterosexual love relationship with another. Freud believed that adult emotional problems result from either deprivation or excessive gratification during the oral, anal, or phallic stages. A child with libido fixated at one of these stages would in adulthood show specific neurotic symptoms, such as.anxiety The successful completion of each stage leads to a healthy personality as an adult. If, however, a conflict remains unresolved at any particular stage, the individual.might remain fixated or stuck at that particular point of development To be psychologically healthy, we must successfully complete each stage. Mental abnormality can occur if a stage is not completed successfully and the person becomes fixated‘ in a particular stage. This particular theory shows how adult.personality is determined by childhood experiences A fixation or stuck is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. For example, a person who is fixated at the oral stage may be over- dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating A fixation can involve an over-dependence or obsession with something related to that phase of development. For example, a person with an "oral fixation" is believed to be stuck at the oral stage of development. Signs of an oral fixation might include.‫ عالق في هذه المرحلة‬excessive reliance on oral  Anxiety and defense mechanisms  - Freud suggest that type of anxiety is the birth trauma EX: - The fetus on the mother's womb is in the most secure of world but at birth he thrust in to a hostile environment, so it required to begin adapting to reality (increase motor activity movement, increase heart rate) this is birth trauma. This tension due to Id not satisfied is our first experience of.anxiety, from it is created a pattern of reaction in the future Anxiety and defense mechanisms.Freud proposed a set of defense mechanisms in one's body- Freud stated that it is necessary for the self to have some mechanism to - defend itself against this unfavorable event; this is known as defense mechanisms Freud's work on defense mechanisms focused on how the ego defends - itself against internal events or impulses, which are regarded as unacceptable to one's ego These defense mechanisms are used to handle the conflict between -.the id, the ego, and the superego Freud noted that a major drive for people is the reduction of tension -.and the major cause of tension was anxiety Defense mechanisms often appear unconsciously and tend to distort -.or falsify reality  Sigmund Freud noted a number of ego defenses :mechanisms as follows Denial is believing that what is true is actually false )1 Displacement is taking out impulses on a less threatening )2 target Intellectualization is avoiding unacceptable emotions by )3 focusing on the intellectual aspects Projection is attributing uncomfortable feelings to others )4 Rationalization is creating false reasons but believable )5 justifications Reaction Formation is taking the opposite belief because )6 the true belief causes anxiety Regression is going back to a previous stage of )7 development Repression )8 Suppression )9 Sublimation is redirecting ‗wrong‘ urges into socially )10 acceptable actions  :The concept of mental illness Mental illness is the outcome of personality internal conflicts (between id, ego.and super ego) and the inability to adapt with reality because of the weak ego An imbalance in meeting the child’s needs in any developmental stage (whether increased or decreased) may lead to “libido fixation” in that stage, the person will regress to this stage whenever he is faced with a problems, which predispose him.to mental illness Fixation in any of the stages of personality development lead to the consumption of the libido energy in the repression of early experiences on the expense of the.prevailing energy for ego to function effectively  :Theory applications.Each behavior has a meaning-1 The present behavior can only be understood in the light of previous -2.experiences The therapeutic model is psychotherapy and psychoanalysis that aim at-3 discovering the repressed materials at the unconscious and moving it to the conscious level using techniques like free association, dream interpretation, identifying and understanding defense mechanisms The preventive role of the psychiatric nurse is emphasized. This is -4 done through family /parent education on children in developmental.stages to avoid later psychological problems Psychoanalysis is commonly used to treat depression and anxiety-5 disorders. In psychoanalysis (therapy) Freud would have a patient lie on a couch to relax, and he would sit behind them taking notes while they told him about their dreams and childhood memories Criticism of Theory Critics argue that this theory is merely concentrated on personal past experiences that cannot be generalized. Moreover, many of the concepts in this theory are not quantifiable or measurable. The strengths of the theory are that it included experimental psychology and is still influential in.psychology today  Piaget's Theory of Cognitive-2 Development Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget is early exposure to the intellectual development of children-1 His budding hypothesis that children's minds were not merely smaller versions of adult -2.minds Piaget proposed that intelligence grows and develops through a series of stages. Older -3.children do not just think more quickly than younger children Based on his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults -4.—they simply think differently focuses on how children learn and 5-Piaget's theory of cognitive development.evolve in their understanding of the world around them  CONTINUED Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children-6.. Which involves changes in cognitive process and abilities of children In Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves processes based-7.upon actions and later progresses to changes in mental operations :According to his theory, there are four stages children go through during cognitive development :The four stages given by Piaget are the sensorimotor stage from birth to 2 years, Infants and toddlers learn about the )1( world around them through reflexes, their five senses, and motor responses. Such as: sucking of objects in the mouth, following moving or interesting objects with the eyes,.and closing of the hand when an object makes contact with the palm, smell flowers the preoperational stage from 2 to 7 years, Kids start to learn how to think )2( symbolically, and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects but they struggle ‫يجد صعوبة فى فهم وجهة نظر االخرين‬.to understand the perspectives of others Continued the concrete-operational stage from 7 to 11 years, Kids begin to think )3( logically and are capable of reasoning from specific information to form a general principle.(classify books and magazine, cup of orange juice) the stage of formal operations from 12 to up, that characterizes the )4( adolescent and the adult. This is when we begin to think in abstract terms, such as thinking moral, philosophical, and political issues, that require theoretical and abstract reasoning (as freedom, feel of identity) One of Piaget’s fundamental assumptions is that early intellectual growth arises primarily.environment out of the child’s interactions with objects in the Behaviorism Theory (Behavioral-3 Theory) Behaviorism is a theory of learning which states all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment through a process called.conditioning. Thus, behavior is simply a response to environmental stimuli Behaviorism is only concerned with observable stimulus-response.behaviors, as they can be studied in a systematic and observable manner and operant conditioning are two important Classical conditioning concepts central to behavioral psychology. There are similarities between classical and operant conditioning. Both types of conditioning result in.learning and both suggest that a subject can adapt to their environment However, the processes are also quite different. What are the main differences between operant vs. classical conditioning? To understand how each of these behavior modification techniques can be used, it is also essential to.understand how classical and operant conditioning differ from one another Classical Conditioning First described by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist Focuses on involuntary, automatic behaviors Involves placing a neutral signal before a reflex Operant Conditioning First described by B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist Involves applying reinforcement or punishment after a behavior Focuses on strengthening or weakening voluntary behaviors Behaviorism as a theory was primarily developed by B. F. Skinner in which three basic assumptions are central to explaining the.learning process ‫ يتجلى التعلم‬First: learning is manifested by a change in behavior Second: the environment shapes behavior.Third: the principles of consciousness and reinforcement  /‫االشراط‬ :Conditioning means ‫التكييف‬ A process by which human is trained to behave in a particular.way when particular thing happen Or a process of behaviour modification by associate a desired ” behaviour with a previously unrelated stimulus  Continued Conditioning Occurs In Two types : That are Classical conditioning occurs when someone comes to associate specific stimuli with a certain outcome. This manner of conditioning often encourages.people to behave in ways that will bring them joy and pleasure Operant conditioning controls human behavior via positive and negative “ reinforcement or “tries to relate behavior to reward and punishment :First type of conditioning ‫نظرية‬Classical conditioning proposed by Dr. Ivan Pavlov )1 ‫بافلوف االشراطية للتعلم‬ :He gave the definition of classical conditioning as Where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as in the -.case of Pavlov's Dogs Pavlov was interested in studying reflexes, when he saw that the dogs -.drooled without the proper stimulus Although no food was in sight, their saliva still dribbled. It turned out - that the dogs were reacting to lab coats. Every time the dogs were.served food, the person who served the food was wearing a lab coat Therefore, the dogs reacted as if food was on its way whenever.they saw a lab coat In the experiments performed by Pavlov the first type of salivation was due to physiological reflex to the ; presence of food in the mouth of the dog, this is a natural or unconditioned situation, in which the food is (Unconditioned.stimulus) and salivation (unconditional response) Then, Give food to the dog which paired with a tuning fork, after a number of such pairing, the tuning fork become a stimulus(conditioned stimulus) and salivation the conditioned.response  CONCEPTS Conditioned stimulus It is that stimulus which was previously neutral It produces response after learning/classical conditioning has occurred E.g.: sound of bell Conditioned response The response conditioned stimulus. This is due to learning E.g.: salivation on hearing sound of bell  Concepts Unconditioned stimulus Produces response without prior learning E.g.: Food Unconditioned response The response to Unconditioned stimulus This is not due to learning E.g.: Salivation on seeing food Operant conditioning: was first investigated by B.F Skinner )2 Skinner studied the occurrence of voluntary responses when an organism operates in.environment He called them operants. Operants are those behaviors or responses, which are emitted by animals and human beings voluntarily and are under their control  Operant conditioning: was first investigated by B.F Skinner )2 Is a type of associative learning process through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment For example a child may learn to open a box to get the sweets inside, or learn to avoid.touching a hot stove Where there is reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or a punishment. The theory of operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner and is known as Radical Behaviorism. The word ‘operant’ refers to the way in which behavior ‘operates on the environment’. Briefly, a behavior may result either in reinforcement, which increases the likelihood of the behavior.recurring, or punishment, which decreases the likelihood of the behavior recurring  The four types of operant conditioning techniques :include Positive reinforces: the addition of a reward by the addition of praise or a direct reward. If you do a good job at work and your manager gives you a bonus, that bonus is a positive reinforce Negative reinforces: the removal of a punishment :A child doesn’t have to clean the table (unpleasant event) after the meal if they eat their vegetable punishment Positive punishes: the addition of a Negative punishes: the removal of a reward Taking away a child's video game following.misbehavior is an example of negative punishment Criticism Of Theory The main critics of this theory is that the theory has a single approach to behavior and that behavioral theories are not entirely responsible for.changes in moods, feelings and thoughts The strength of this theory is that it has its basis on the observable.behavior hence easily quantifiable and easy to collect data  Psychosocial Theory: Erikson-4 Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular theories of development. Erikson's theory centered on psychosocial development rather than psychosexual. development Erikson described 8 stages of personality development depending on the biological, psychological and social events. Each stage is characterized by positive experiences, negative experiences as well as an emotional crisis. The child develops psychologically by passing through these experiences (positive and negative). For a child to grow normally, he needs to pass through more positive. experiences than negative-ones -:The concept of mental illness Failure to resolve the emotional crisis predisposes the person to mental illness. For :example Lack of trust in the oral-sensory phase predisposes this child to schizophrenia later in-.life.Sudden weaning may lead to depression in childhood and later on- Mistreatment of a child in the muscular-anal stage may lead to obsessive-compulsive-.disorder or paranoid fears as he is afraid of loosing his autonomy  Theory applications Psychoanalysis for adults and play therapy for children are used to arrange the early developmental stages and solve the emotional crisis. The therapy aims at resolution of conflicts, widening the area of self-awareness strengthening the sense of identity, and.social awareness The nurse benefits from this theory in teaching parents about psychosocial stages, why the child behave in this way and the most appropriate methods to deal with it.effectively to strength the child personality Interpersonal theory of psychiatry: - (Harry stack Sullivan) -5 Harry Sullivan believed that people develop their personality within a social context.-- Sullivan insisted that knowledge of human personality can be gained only through the.scientific study of interpersonal relations This theory explained the role of interpersonal relationships and social experiences in-- regards to the shaping of personalities, as well as the importance of life events to.psychopathology Stack-Sullivan’s theory states that the purpose of behavior is for the patient to have his-- or her needs met through interpersonal interactions, as well as decrease or avoid.anxiety Stages of Interpersonal Development.His interpersonal theory emphasizes the importance of various developmental stages as the following Stage (Epochs) Time-Period Developmental Task Infancy 0-18mths Oral gratification; anxiety first occurs Childhood 18mths-6y Delayed gratification Juvenile Era ‫عصر االحداث‬ 6-9y Forming peer-relationships Preadolescence 9-12y Same-sex relationships Early Adolescence 12-14y Opposite-sex relationships Late Adolescence 14-21y Self-identity is developed Assumptions and Key Concepts Anxiety: the “main disruptive force” in interpersonal relations. It's mean any -1.painful feeling or emotions.Causes of Anxiety.Feeling of unaccepting from significant others low Emotional linkage (empathy) between infant and other significant people.(Mother).Inability to satisfy needs or to achieve interpersonal security Sullivan focused on anxiety as being a consequence of faulty social.interactions The Interpersonal Theory explains three types of self: the good me, bad me, and not me. The “good me” versus the “bad me” based on.social appraisal and the anxiety that results from negative feedback Stack-Sullivan’s theory also explains anxiety, self-system,.and self-esteem It states that security operations are those measures that the individual employs to reduce anxiety and enhance.security A self-system is all of the security operations an individual.uses to defend against anxiety and ensure self-esteem.The self-system is considered an antianxiety system.Sullivan View of Mental Illness Sullivan defined mental illness as inappropriate-1 interpersonal relationships, the appearance of anxiety indicate developmental deficits and therapy focus on anxiety and its.cause rather than on symptoms Sullivan view obsessive compulsive disorder as out of-2 interpersonal conflict(between persons) in contrast to Freud who perceived as out of unresolved conflict related to.repression of aggressive impulse.Theory Application Teach family about normal developmental stages and-1 development of self- system, and how to give approval to child acceptable behavior and how to alter behavior that elicit negative response from parent into a proper direction e.g.(drawing instead.of Masturbate) Promote positive experience for client so that "good me" or-2 positive concept can develop MASLOW Humanistic Theory “Maslow’s-6 :hierarchy of needs Maslow’s great insight was to place actualization into a hierarchy of motivation. Maslow also presents a hierarchy of needs which can be divided into growth needs. One must satisfy lower basic needs before progressing on to meet higher level growth needs. One these needs have been reasonably satisfied, one may be able to reach the.highest level called self-actualization MASLOW Humanistic Theory :Maslow’s Hierarchy Of Needs Physiological needs.1 These are biological requirements for human survival, e.g. air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep. Maslow considered physiological needs are the most important and basic needs as all the other needs become secondary until these needs.are met The most basic need is for physical survival, and this will be the first thing that motivates our behavior. Once that level is fulfilled the next level up is what motivates.us, and so on If these needs are not satisfied, the human body cannot function optimally. Maslow considered physiological needs the most important as all the other needs become secondary until these.needs are met Once an individual’s physiological needs are satisfied, the needs for.security and safety become salient Safety needs.2 Once an individual’s physiological needs are satisfied, the needs for security and safety become essential. These needs can be fulfilled by the family and society (e.g. police, schools, business.and medical care) For example, emotional security, financial security (e.g. employment, social welfare), law and order, freedom from fear, social stability, property, health and wellbeing (e.g. safety against.accidents and injury) Love and belongingness needs.3 After physiological and safety needs have been fulfilled, the third level of human needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness. Belongingness, refers to a human emotional need for interpersonal relationships, affiliating,.connectedness, and being part of a group Examples of belongingness needs include friendship, intimacy, trust, and.acceptance, receiving and giving affection, and love Esteem needs.4 Are the fourth level in Maslow’s hierarchy and include self-worth,.accomplishment and respect Maslow classified esteem needs into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence) and (ii) the.desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige) Self-actualization needs.5 Are the highest level in Maslow's hierarchy, and refer to the realization of a person's potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. Maslow describes this level as the desire to accomplish everything that one can,.to become the most that one can be Individuals may perceive or focus on this need very specifically. For example, one.individual may have a strong desire to become an ideal parent In another, the desire may be expressed economically, academically or athletically. For others, it may be expressed creatively, in paintings, pictures, or.inventions