Human Behavior and Social Environment PDF

HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT Social Functioning - The relation between the activity of people and the demand from the environment, focusing attention to what goes on between people and environment through the...

HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT Social Functioning - The relation between the activity of people and the demand from the environment, focusing attention to what goes on between people and environment through the exchange between them, and stressed the need to consider both elements as composites of a single concept (Bartlett, 1970). - The match or fit between the needs, capacities, and activities of the individual and the opportunities and demands of his/her social environment by looking into the quality of transactions between them (Sheafor, et. Al, 1997) Person-in-Environment Bio-psycho-social- Actual Situation spiritual well-being Perceived Situation PERSONALITY THEORIES I. Psychoanalytic Paradigm Sigmund Freud (Classical Psychoanalysis) - developed classical psychoanalysis, where he developed the technique of Free Association which he called the fundamental rule of psychoanalysis - argued that human beings are hedonistic (means in constant pursuit of pleasure) creatures driven by the same impulses as animals Composition of Personalities Id – the origin of personality o Pleasure principle: dictates to avoid pain and seek pleasure where it demands immediate satisfaction o Libido: sexual instinct/energy Ego – the component of the mind that is directed to the world outside o Reality principle: delays satisfaction of id and demands to conform with socially acceptable standards and avoid harmful consequences Superego – represents the moral and ideal aspect of the personality  Two Subdivisions of Superego o Conscience: the internalized experiences for which a child was punished o Ego-ideal: the internalized experiences for which a child has been rewarded 2 Basic Categories of Instinct - Eros : life instinct; serve for the survival of the species - Thanatos : death instinct; towards destruction of self or others Components of Instinct Source – a deficiency of some kind Aim – to reduce deficiency until no action is needed Impetus – amount of energy used to satisfy the need Object – experiences or objects that reduce deficiency Cathexis Anti-cathexis relationship or connection between inhibition of an impulse by either a need and an object that will ego or super ego (e.g. controlling satisfy a need (e.g. alcoholic) the consumption of alcohol) Anxiety - state of extremely unpleasant emotion; reaction of the ego to the threatening urge of instincts from id - the most overwhelming experience of anxiety is birth trauma (the sudden change of security; from womb to the outside world) and is the basis of all subsequent anxieties Types of Anxiety 1. Moral Anxiety – fear of doing something contrary to the superego, thus experiencing guilt 2. Reality Anxiety – caused by real, objective sources of danger in the environment 3. Neurotic Anxiety – unconscious fear of being overpowered by instinctual impulses (e.g. the id overpowering the ego, thus committing rape) Defense Mechanisms - unconscious psychological strategies for coping with threatening instinctual urges 1. Projection – attributing own unacceptable thoughts/feelings unto others 2. Introjection – internalization of characteristics of a feared or loved individual 3. Displacement – diverting emotional feelings from their original source to a substitute target 4. Rationalization – justification of a provoking or thought that may be otherwise anxiety provoking 5. Sublimation – modification of unacceptable into acceptable urges by changing the object or means of expression into productive way 6. Reaction Formation – managing unacceptable feelings or impulses by expressing their opposites (e.g. boy bullying a girl because he likes her) 7. Repression – threatening thought, memory, emotion, or event are excluded from consciousness 8. Regression – reversion to immature patterns of behavior 9. Intellectualization – separating the normal feeling from an unpleasant situation into logic tight compartments 10. Denial – refusal to accept fact or reality 11. Dissociation – losing track of time and/or person, and instead finds another representation of one’s self in order to continue to continue in the moment 12. Compartmentalization – parts of one’s self are separated from other parts behaving like it had a different set of values Psychosexual Stages of Development Oral Stage 0-1 year old Erogenous Zone: Mouth Fixation: Oral Receptive – very trusting, dependent Oral Aggressive – aggressive and dominating Anal Stage 1-3 years old Erogenous Zone: Anal Fixation: Anal Expulsive – emotional, rebellious, messy Anal Retentive – mean, stubborn, obsessively tidy Phallic Stage 3-6 years old Erogenous Zone: Genital Area Fixation: Self-assured; Vain; Impulsive Oedipus Complex Electra Complex -male child desires mother and views father -female child desires father and as a rival blames mother for not having penis -castration anxiety; concept of identification (called the penis envy) -concept of repression and identification Latency Stage  6-12 years old Erogenous Zone: None Focuses on social interaction with others Genital Stage 12 years onward Erogenous Zone: Genital Area Fixation: Well-adjusted; Mature Tools in Psychoanalysis 1. Free Association – patients encouraged to say whatever comes to mind a. Transference – person unconsciously redirects feelings b. Abreaction – bringing forward memories accompanied by strong emotion c. Catharsis – allowing anxieties to be emotionally released to reduce/eliminate it 2. Freudian Slip – mistakes or parapraxes that reveal unconscious thoughts and feelings 3. Dream Analysis – “royal road” to consciousness; interpretation of symbolisms in dreams a. Condensation – part of something symbolized the whole (e.g. article of clothing = a person) b. Synthesis – idea in a dream is actually a combination of many ideas in the latent content (e.g. childhood pet represents an entire family) c. Dislocation – displacement of unacceptable idea to something symbolically equivalent (e.g. breasts = mountains, penis = baseball bat) 4. Humor – allows the expression of repressed thoughts in socially approved manner Carl Jung (Analytic Psychology) - libido is a creative force that could be applied for continuous psychological growth - human behavior is motivated both by the past experiences and future goals (teleology) Stages of Development 1. Childhood (birth to adolescence) - learning skills necessary for survival; sexual activities 2. Young Adulthood (adolescence to 40 y/o) - learning a vocation or craft; raising a family and community life 3. Middle Age (40 y/o onwards) - sophisticated cultural, philosophical, and spiritual sense of value Components of Psyche (all of the elements of the human mind, both conscious and unconscious) 1. Ego – everything of which we are conscious  2. Personal Unconscious – materials that were once conscious but repressed or forgotten, or were not vivid enough to make conscious impression Complex – personally disturbing constellation of ideas connected together by common feeling (e.g. mother complex: actions that are directly or symbolically related to the idea of a mother) 3. Collective Unconscious – collective experiences during a revolutionary past or the accumulation of ancestral experience Archetype – inherited predisposition to respond to certain aspects of the world (12 archetypes: Innocent, Everyman, Hero, Outlaw, Explorer, Creator, Ruler, Magician, Lover, Caregiver, Jester, and Sage) 4. Persona – one’s need to play a role in the society; “one’s public self” 5. Syzygy – the pair of Anima (female component of a male) and Animus (male component of a female) 6. Shadow – darkest deepest part of the psyche; inherited from pre-human ancestor; contains raw animal instinct and desire 7. The Self – the whole of psyche and its potential; its goal is wholeness and harmony, thus the self-actualization Mandala – a symbol of self, which means circle Individuation – the differentiation of the parts of the psyche or personality; process of finding harmony between all components of the psyche and embracing one’s individuality o Man is constantly striving for unity, wholeness, and integration or known as transcended function o Past Experience push a person, while Future Goals pull a person Synchronicity – or meaningful coincidence is when one fantasizes an event, and it occurs. Progression Regression forward movement of libidinal energy backward movement of libidinal energy Dynamics of Personality Principle of Equivalence Principle of Entropy if a particular value weakens, the sum of if two values are of unequal strength, energy energy represented by the value will not will tend to pass from the strongest to the be lost, but it will reappear in a new weaker value until balance is reached (e.g. value (e.g. a child valuation of parents a child valuation on parents and friends weaken, its valuation to friends will become equal when one lessens while strengthen) in others, it will strengthen) General Orientation of the Psyche  Introversion Extroversion inward, toward the subjective world of survival outward, towards the external environment Cognitive Functions Sensing – detects presence of things Feeling – values a thing positively or negatively Thinking – discern what a thing is Intuiting – hunches about past or future events without factual information Jungian Personality Typology Extrovert Thinking – concrete thought and ideas that have been transmitted; fixed values, are objective, and cold Introvert Thinking – interprets external stimuli by internal meaning; private and socially inhibited, intellectual, ignores some practicalities in life Extrovert Feeling – objective and guided by external values and norms; sociable and emotional Introvert Feeling – judgment based on subjective perceptions; quiet, thoughtful, and hypersensitive, indifferent to feelings and opinions of others, very little expression of emotions Extrovert Sensing – objective perception of stimuli; pleasure seeking, jolly, and socially adaptive; very realistic Introvert Sensing – subjective sensation of five senses; life guided by what happens; artistic, passive, calm, detached from human affairs Extrovert Intuition – interested about facts in external world rather than fully sensing them; makes decision based on hunches, creative but difficulty in staying on one idea Introvert Feeling – guided by unconscious and subjective perception of facts; odd, daydreamer, and create strange idea; sometimes misunderstood but not care Heinz Hartmann (Ego-Psychology) - published Ego Psychology and the Problem of Adaptation, which focuses on adaptive functions of Ego - “ego is man’s special organ for adaptation” Autonomous Ego  - free from influence of both the id and superego - a.k.a. conflict-free ego; have its own drives and functions derived from instinct of self-preservation Functions 1. Primary Autonomous Ego Function – innate, inherited ego characteristics (e.g. perception, thinking, comprehension) 2. Secondary Autonomous Ego Function – involved in developmental conflicts that were freed through the process of naturalization II. Social Psychological Paradigm: Neo Freudian Erik H. Erikson (Contemporary Psychoanalytic or Ego Psychology) - ego started out in service of id, but in the process, it develops function of its own Three Interrelated Aspects of Ego 1. Body ego – one’s experience with his/her own body; physical state 2. Ego ideal – image we have of ourselves as compared with an established ideal; standards 3. Ego identity – image of ourselves in a variety of social roles Psychosocial Stage of Development  Identity Status Theory - exploration of Erikson’s Identity vs Role Confusion concept. James Marcia (1966) proposes that status of a person’s identity may change in response to environmental crises. 1. Identity Diffusion – low commitment to a particular identity 2. Identity Foreclosure – commitment to an identity without a crisis 3. Identity Moratorium – searching for an identity to adopt in the midst of crisis 4. Identity Achievement – achieved when a person undergoes a crisis and makes a commitment to a particular identity Alfred Adler (Individual Psychology) - described unconsciousness as a temporary state of unawareness - each person can create their own personalities with conscious intent to achieve their goals Unity of Personality – principle proposing that individual is not internally divided nor driven by conflicting internal forces; each aspect of personality is pointing at the same direction and is subordinated to the individual’s style of life Structure of Personality 1. Organ of Inferiority - people are more vulnerable to disease in organs that are less developed, or inferior to other organs 2. Feelings of Inferiority - children start life with feeling inferior because they are completely dependent - feeling of being weak, inferior, and impotent stimulates the desire for power - to become more powerful, one must become more masculine than feminine or known as Masculine Protest 3. Striving for Superiority - is a fundamental fact of life; an innate need from the time of birth Inferiority Complex – stagnation of growth because difficulties seem too immense to overcome Superiority Complex – neurotic belief that one is better than others 4. Style of Life - means by which an individual attempts to gain superiority - one’s lifestyle crystallize at the age of 4 or 5  5. Fictional Finalism - Fictional future goal which a person aspires for. Safeguarding Techniques – protective devices that enables a person protect their self-image and maintain their style of life: Excuses, Aggression, Withdrawal 6. Social Interest - desire to feel a part and contribute to society Three Tasks of Life – Occupational Task (Work), Societal Task (Social Interaction), and Love and Marriage Task Key Factors in Personality Development Family Atmosphere (Parental Behavior) Family Constellation alternation between indulgence and rejection refer to one’s position within the family (individual is fully responsible for the attached in terms of birth order and the presence meaning to parental behavior) and absence of parents Three “Entrance Gates” to Mental Life 1. Birth Order The First Born - dethroned when the 2nd child is born; achievement oriented, intellectual, conservative, possibly insecure and anxious, may try too hard The Second Child - competitive, ambitious, envious Youngest Child - spoiled, dependent and easily discouraged Only Child - never dethroned; shocked upon learning that he/she can’t remain the center of attention 2. First Memories - earliest recollection that are evidences on the origin of one’s lifestyle 3. Dream Analysis - dreams are used to provide a way of dealing with one’s problems Karen Horney (Feminine Psychology and Psychoanalytic Social Theory) - social and cultural conditions are largely responsible for shaping personality - neurosis is caused by disturbed human relationship, primarily between parent and child Six Principle of Honey’s Theory 1. Optimism-Positivism Principle – humankind has the capacity to change 2. Society-Cultural Principle – personality is a product of interaction with others 3. Character Structure Principle – people create structural character which sets limit within which one has free choice how to behave 4. Self-Concept Principle – awareness on oneself as a human being and importance of oneself in the roles of life 5. Complementation-Conflict Principle – major adjustment technique and minor adjustment technique  6. Self-Analysis Principle – people have the capacity to analyze their own defects; have basic skill to solve many but not all Adjustment Techniques Primary Adjustment Technique a. Moving Towards People – Compliant; “If I give in, I shall not be hurt.” b. Moving Against People – Hostile, “If I have power, none will hurt me.” c. Moving Away from People – Detached, “If I withdraw, nothing can hurt me.” Secondary Adjustment Technique a. Blind Spots - Denying aspects of an experience because they are not in accordance with one’s ideal self b. Compartmentalization - Dividing one’s life into various components with different rules applying to them c. Rationalization - Giving good reasons to excuse a conduct that goes against one’s ideal self d. Excessive Self Control - Guarding against anxiety by controlling an expression e. Externalization - Feeling that all major influences in life are external f. Arbitrary Rightness - When an issue arises that have no clear solution, the person arbitrarily chooses one solution, thereby ending the debate and it can’t be challenged. (e.g. You’re not going, and that’s final!) g. Elusiveness - Never making a decision about anything h. Cynicism - Not believing in anything and pointing out absence of meaning in belief of others Real Self Ideal Self Things that are true about us at any Our concept of what we would like to particular time become 10 Neurotic Trends or Needs - Neurotic need for Affection and - Neurotic need for personal Approval admiration - Neurotic need for a partner who - Neurotic need for ambition and will run personal achievement - one’s life - Neurotic need for independence - Neurotic need to live within - Neurotic need for power narrow limits - Neurotic need for perfection - Neurotic need to exploit others - Neurotic need for social recognition Harry Stack Sullivan (Interpersonal Theory) - knowledge of the individual can only occur within the context of interpersonal relations Personality as an Energy Stream Tension – potentiality for action; caused by needs and anxiety Energy Transformation – actions to ease tension and satisfy needs or relieve anxiety Dynamism - relatively enduring pattern of Energy Transformation; it may be equated to a habit Malevolence – disjunctive dynamism of evil and hatred Intimacy – conjunctive dynamism of close personal relationship between two people of equal status Lust – self-centered need for sexual gratification without a need for intimate interpersonal relationship Self-System – the most inclusive of all dynamisms; pattern of behaviors that protects us against anxiety and maintains our interpersonal security Personification - subjective perception or images of self and others Stereotypes – personification that is shared by a number of people Bad Mother-Good Mother Personification - caused by a nipple that doesn’t satisfy a child’s hunger needs Me Personification Bad Me – grows from experiences of punishment and disapproval Good Me – results from experiences of reward and approval Not Me – dissociation of experiences related to anxiety Eidetic Personification - imaginary playmates that pre-school aged children have Levels of Cognition 1. Prototaxic – experiences that are impossible to put into words or communicate to others 2. Parataxic – prelogical experiences concerning cause and effect that are nearly impossible to communicate; parataxic disorder – erroneous assumption about cause and effect 3. Syntaxic – experiences that can be accurately communicated to others Developmental Epochs Infancy – start of development; appearance of dynamism, apathy, and personification  Childhood – learning of language and organization of experience into syntaxic level Juvenile – beginning of healthy socialization Pre-adolescence – the child’s ability to form a close relationship with a peer is the major focus Early Adolescence – need for sexual expression and development of heterosexual activity pattern Late Adolescence – need for friendship and for sexual expression is combined Adulthood – relationships and socialization is greatly affected by previous stages Erick Fromm (Social Psychological Theory) - human beings are not genetically aggressive - Necrophilious character is similar to Freud’s death instinct; Biophilous character is when one seeks to further the growth of living things Basic Needs of Human Existence 1. Relatedness – to be in contact with people and physical nature 2. Transcendence – to rise above animal existence by becoming active creators 3. Rootedness – to have a sense of belongingness 4. Sense of Identity – to know what one is, sense of “I” 5. Frame of Reference – to have a stable basis of perceiving the world Fromm’s Five Character Types a. Receptive Type – source of all things are outside him/her; passive, lack of character, submissive, coward b. Exploitative Type – source of all good things is outside him/her that must be taken forcibly; aggressive, conceited, arrogant c. Hoarding Type – tendency to hold on to what it has; stingy, possessive, stubborn d. Marketing Type – treats oneself as commodity, obeying the law of supply and demand; lack of principle; aimless; opportunist e. Productive Type – values him/herself and others for what they are and experience security and inner peace; open-minded, loyal, flexible Three Types of Child-Parent Relationships (Development of Personality) 1. Symbiotic Relationship – failure to attain independence; signifies immaturity and pseudo forms of love 2. Withdrawal Destructiveness – negative relatedness or distance and indifference 3. Genuine Productive Love – entails the four essential elements of love a. Care b. Responsibility c. Respect d. Knowledge  III. Personology Henry Murray (Personology) - personology is the study of human lives and individual differences and types of personality Principles of Personology - Personality is rooted in the brain - Tension free existence is a source of distress - Personality continues to develop throughout a person’s life - Personality changes and progresses - Each person is unique and there are similarities among all people Divisions of Personality Id – primitive amoral and lustful impulses; desirable impulses Superego – internalization of culture’s values and norms; continues to develop throughout life Ego – rational governor of personality Needs Primary and Secondary Needs - people have needs referring to physical satisfaction (viscerogenic) and needs lacking of focal connection with any physical satisfaction(psychogenic) Focal and Diffused Needs – Focal needs are activated by specific environmental objects; Diffused needs are proactive and are applicable regardless of environmental setting Subsidiation – a situation in which one need is activated to aid satisfaction of another need Overt and Covert Needs – are manifest (expressed in motor behavior) and latent (belong to the world of dreams) needs Proactive and Reactive Needs – Proactive needs are those from within; Reactive needs are result of, or in response to, some environmental event Modal and Effect Need – Modal needs are doing something with a degree of excellence or quality; Effect need are those that lead to a desired state or end Press – influence of the environment and past events on the current activation of need Alpha Press – refers to actual, objective reality Beta Press – refers to one’s subjective, perceived reality Thema – a combination of press (environment) and need (personality) that brings order to behavior 20 Needs of People  1. Abasement – to submit passively to external forces, self-depreciation, low self-regard 2. Achievement – to accomplish something difficult and overcome obstacles 3. Affiliation – to draw near or enjoy cooperation and reciprocation 4. Aggression – to overcome opposition forcefully 5. Autonomy – to be free, shake off restraint, independence 6. Counteraction – to overcome weakness and repress fear 7. Defendant – to defend the self against assault; to offer explanation 8. Deference – to admire and support a superior 9. Dominance – to control one’s human environment; lead and direct 10. Exhibition – to make an impression; self-dramatization 11. Harm Avoidance – to avoid pain, physical injury, illness, death 12. Infavoidance – to avoid humiliation and fear 13. Nurturance – to give sympathy and gratify the needs of a helpless object 14. Order – to put things in order; organize 15. Play – to act for fun and avoid serious tension 16. Rejection – to separate oneself or exclude another 17. Sentience – to seek and enjoy sensuous impressions 18. Sex – to form an erotic relationship 19. Succorance – to always have a supported; to be dependent 20. Understanding – to ask or answer general questions; to analyze experience Stages of Personality 1. Childhood, Adolescence, Young Adulthood – new structural compositions emerge and multiply 2. Middle Years – marked by conservative recompositions of the already emerged structures and functions 3. Senescence (Final Years) – capacity to form new compositions and recomspositions decreases Complex Claustral Complexes (pre-natal experiences) Simple claustral complex wish to reinstate the conditions similar to those before birth Fear of insupport complex anxiety due to helplessness Aggression complex anxiety directed against suffocation and confinement Oral Complexes (derivatives of early feeding experience) Oral succorance complex involves oral activity with passive dependent tendencies Oral aggression complex combines oral activity with aggression Oral rejection complex involves spitting out and disgust over oral activities and objects  Anal Complexes Anal rejection complex includes cathexis for feces, anal sexuality, aggression, dirtying Anal retention complex cathexis for feces is concealed behind disgust, prudishness and negative reaction to defecation Urethral Complex excessive ambition and distorted sense of self-esteem Genital or Castration Complex fear grows out of masturbation and parental punishment IV. Trait Paradigm Gordon Allport (Psychology of Individuals or Trait Theory) - defined personality as “the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behavior and thought” Structure of Personality 1. Personal Dispositions Cardinal dispositions are traits that dominantly influence everything a person does Central disposition are characteristics of a person that typifies his or her behavior Secondary disposition are responses to particular stimuli 2. Propium – all traits that the person regard central to their lives Functional Autonomy – holds that some human motives are functionally independent from the original motive responsible for a particular behavior Perseverative Functional Autonomy tendency of some basic behavior to continue without reinforcement Propriate Functional Autonomy are self-sustaining motives related to propium Stages of Development of Self Bodily Sense of Self (0-3) Sensory information provides an “anchor” for our self-awareness. Self-Identity (infancy to death) Sense of existence as a separate person Ego Enhancement or Self-Esteem (2-3) Sense of pride or shame depending on achievement Testing the limits of the environment  Ego-extension (3-4 or 4-6) Identify with personal possessions. With maturity this shifts to loved ones and later to ideal causes and loyalties. Self-Image (4-6) Learned expectations of the roles we are expected to enact Aspirations for the future we seek to attain Rational Agent (6-12) Engage in reflective thought, problem solving Propriate Striving (12 +) “ego-involved” behavior, characterized by the unification of personality in pursuit of major life goals The Knower (adult) Integration of the previous seven aspects of proprium Unified personality Hayns Eysenck (Biological Typology) - defined personality as the stable and enduring organization of a person’s character, temperament, intellect, and physique that determines his/her adjustment to the environment Character – system of cognitive behavior (will) Temperament – system of affective behavior (emotion) Intellect Physique – system of bodily configuration and neuroendocrine endowment - personality is governed by three dimensions or universal traits 1. Extroversion-Introversion – Extrovert manifests impulsive, outgoing, tendency to seek out highly arousal state; Introversion manifests reserved, introspective, generally avoids arousing state 2. Stability-Instability – neuroticism ranger from normal to fairly calm but tends to be quite nervous; high scores are indicative of emotional over-reaction and have difficulties adjusting to normal state after emotional experiences 3. Psychoticism – describes a person with psychotic and psychopathic tendencies; at the end, person would be solitary, troublesome, insensitive, hostile, and aggressive; genetic and more common in men than women Raymond Cattel (Factor Analysis) - came up with the 171 different traits that describes an individual’s personality through the use of factor analysis Division of Traits Surface Traits – cluster of related behaviors that are readily observable in a given situation Source Traits – are underlying causes of overt behavior a. Constitutional Source Traits – genetically determined traits b. Environmental Mold Traits – shaped by one’s culture and experiences Modality of Expression 1. Ability Traits – source traits that determine how effectively a person works toward desired goals a. Crystallized Intelligence – cumulated knowledge of the kind learned in school b. Fluid Intelligence – knowledge gained through experience 2. Dynamic Traits – sets the personality in motion towards some goals a. Ergs – roughly equivalent to instinctual, biological, or primary needs b. Meta Ergs – learned drives i. Sentiment – predisposition to act in certain ways towards classes of objects or events ii. Attitude – specific responses to specific objects or events Howard Gardner (Multiple Intelligence) - defined intelligence as the ability to solve a problem or create a product that is valued in society  V. Existential Humanistic Paradigm George Kelly (Personal Construct Theory) - states that human beings are like scientists that formulate constructs, the apparent regularities in their life to make it understandable and predictable Experience Cycle 1. Anticipation (the hypothesis) 2. Investment in the event 3. Encounter with the event 4. Confirmation or disconfirmation of the hypothesis or the anticipation; and 5. Constructive Revision depending on the outcome (confirmation or disconfirmation) 11 Colloralies Construction Corollary – view events through similar past experiences Individuality Corollary – no two individuals are exactly alike in their judgement Organization Corollary – each person characteristically evolves Dichotomy Corollary – individual constructs consist of pair opposites (e.g. good-bad) Choice Corollary – choosing among the pair constructs Range Corollary – when we cannot construe an event, we experience anxiety Experience Corollary – humans are active reacting organisms Modulation Corollary – degree in which a construct is open to interpretation of new events Fragmentation Corollary – may successively employ a variety of construction subsystem Commonality Corollary – extent that one person employs a construction of experiences which is similar withw others Sociality Corollary – extent that one person contrues the construction processes of another Carl Rogers (Person-Centered Theory) - the ultimate goal is to be a fully functioning individual  Formative Tendency Actualizing Tendency all matters evolves from simpler to more all organisms move toward completion and complex forms fulfillment of potentials Structure of Personality Organism Phenomenological Field – totality of experience Self – consists of pattern of conscious perception and values of I and me Congruence – having accurate self- concept Incongruence – distortion between self-concept and reality Characteristics of Fully Functioning Individual Openness to Experience Existential Living Self-trust Sense of Freedom Creativity Abraham Maslow (Humanistic Psychology) - belief that there is basic goodness in human nature and a natural tendency toward self- actualization - the need to develop a deeper sense of self and achieve one’s own potential Ludwig Binswanger (Existential Psychology) - concept of causality from the natural science to psychology. - anxiety is felt when one can no longer find meaning in life and because of limited choices to change things - Existentialism means centering upon the existing person. Puts emphasis on the human being as he/she is emerging and becoming Modes of Existence 1. Umwelt – the “world around: or non-personal; biological drives, needs, and instincts 2. Mitwelt – “with the world”; meaning of fellow human beings and person’s relationship with others 3. Eigenwelt – “own world”; relationship with one’s self-identity VI. Learning Paradigm Burrhus Frederic Skinner (Operant Conditioning Theory) - belief that behavior can be controlled and explained by manipulation of the environment that contains the individual Operant Conditioning - if the occurrence of the operant is followed by a reinforcing stimulus, the strength is increased Positive Reinforcement – favorable outcome after occurrence of desired behavior (e.g. giving candy after doing good) Negative Reinforcement – removal of unfavorable outcome after occurrence of desired behavior (e.g. removing chores after doing good) Positive Punishment – unfavorable outcome after undesired behavior (e.g. more chores after doing bad) Negative Punishment – removal of favorable outcome after undesired behavior (e.g. removing cellphone after doing bad) *Note: Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning differs, the stimulus comes first before the desired behavior; it is reactive Albert Bandura (Social Learning Theory) - Self-regulation and Goal Setting - Self-efficiency: fear is largely a product of perceived inefficiency; as efficiency increases, fear decreases  Observational Learning - behavior of one person changes as a result of merely being exposed the behavior of another Modeling Live Modeling – observing model in the flesh Symbolic Modeling – being exposed to models indirectly Conditions for Effective Modeling Attention Retention Reproduction Motivation Three Effects of Observation and Imitation 1. Modeling Effect – observer imitates models, but must be those they are capable of doing 2. Disinhibition Effect – models can release a whole class of behavior that is usually inhibited 3. Eliciting Effect – observer can match the model’s behavior with responses already in their repertoire or learned earlier Jean Piaget (Cognitive Development Theory) - a comprehensive theory on the development of human intelligence and cognition (cognition refers to thinking and memory process) Stages of Cognitive Development Lawrence Kohlberg (Moral Development Theory) - Kohlberg’s theory consists of six stages arranged sequentially in successive tiers of complexity. He organized this stages into three general levels of moral development Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development Neal Miller and John Dollard (Learning Theory) Drive – any strong stimulus that impels an organism to action Cue – stimulus that indicates the appropriate direction an activity should take Response – elicited by the drives and cues that are present and aimed at reducing/eliminating the drive (e.g. a hungry [drive] person seeing a restaurant [cue] must go to that restaurant [response]) Reinforcement – any stimulus that causes drive reduction Four Kinds of Conflict Approach-Approach Conflict – organism is attracted to two things at the same time; two positive goals (double desirable object) Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict – organism is repelled by two things at the same time (“damned if you do, damned if you don’t) Approach-Avoidance Conflict – organism is both attracted and repelled by the same object (one attractive and one unattractive) Double Approach-Avoidance Conflict – organism is both attracted and repelled by two object at the same time (one attractive and one unattractive of two objects at the same time) Julian B. Rotter (Expectancy Reinforcement Value Model) - importance of psychological situation and reinforcement as determinants of behavior - behavior is determine not just by rewards but also the expectations or the anticipation of that behavior being able to bring reinforcement 6 Psychological Needs  1. Recognition Status 2. Dominance 3. Independence 4. Protection Dependence 5. Love and Affection 6. Physical Comfort Rotter’s Social Learning Reinforcement Value – degree or order of preference for the outcome of one’s behavior Expectancy – cognition or belief about the property of some object or event; probability that a behavior will lead to particular outcome Psychological Situation – defined from personal, individual’s perspective FILIPINO PERSONALITY Filipino Psychology - it is an Indigenous Psychology; the scientific study of ethnicity, society, and culture of people, and the application to psychological practice of indigenous knowledge. Sikolohiya sa Pilipinas / Psychology in the Philippines - refers to a series of events related to the field of psychology in the Philippines. Sikolohiya ng mga Pilipino / Psychology of the Filipinos - refers to any theories or knowledge of Filipino nature regardless of source, Western or local Sikolohiyang Filipino / Filipino Psychology - refers to a psychology based on the Filipino’s true thoughts, feelings, behaviors and must derive from indigenous Filipino sources, language, and methods. - initiated in the early 1970s by Virgilio Gaspar Enriquez - a “Cultural Revalidation” of Filipino Psychology Smooth Interpersonal Relations (SIR) - the ability to get along with others in such a way that any signs of conflicts are avoided - SIR acquired “ Pakikisama” “Go- Between” and “ Euphemism” Hospitality - welcoming others into one’s home and offering the best to visitors while denying the same to members of the family (Samson, 1965) Pakikipagkapwa - treating another person as “Kapwa” or fellow human being (Shared Identity) Level of Interaction according to Category of KAPWA A. Ibang Tao Pakikitungo (transaction or civility with) Pakikisalamuha (Interaction with) Pakikilahok (joining or participating) Pakikibagay (in-conformity with/in-accord with) Pakikisama (Being along with) B. Hindi Ibang Tao Pakikipagpalagayang-loob (being in-rapport/ understanding/acceptance with) Pakikisangkot (Getting involved) Pakikiisa (Being one with) Euphemisms or Indirect Communication – Pakikiramdam: feeling for another and being sensitive to their feelings Hiya - an ingredient in why Filipinos overspend during fiestas in order to please their visitors, even to the extent of going into debt’’ (Andres, 1994) Bahala Na - fatalisitic resignation manifested by withdrawal or running away from personal responsibilities; tendency to leave initiative and action to superiors Utang na Loob - reciprocity or debt of gratitude (Kaut, 1961) An Analytical Framework: Indigenous Philippine Value Structure and Correlated Behavior Patterns and the Surface, Core, and Societal Levels Colonial Accommodative Surface Value Hiya (propriety/ dignity) Utang na loob ( gratitude/ /esteem) Pakikisama (companionship/solidarity) Associated Behavior Pattern  Biro Lambing Tampo Confrontative Surface Value Bahala na Sama /lakas ng loob Pakikibaka Pivotal Interpersonal Value Pakiramdam ( Pakikipagkapwa-tao ) ( Shared inner perception ) Core Value: Kapwa (Shared Identity) Linking Socio-Personal Values- Kagandahang-loob; Pagkamakatao; shared humanity Associated Societal Values Karangalan(dignaity) Katarungan(Justice) Kalayaan (freedom) Reductionist/Functional Interpretation “Social acceptance “ “Social equity “ “Social mobility “ Ningas Kugon Enthusiasm which is intense only at the start but gradually fades away. Amoral Familialism Characterized by family expectation such as sharing gains of one member with the entire family Internality and Externality Component of Filipino Personality Internal — Puri, Ligaya, Timpi at Dama  External -Dangal, Saya, Pigil at Damdam Significance Influence of Asian and Western Cultures 1. Spanish influence Religion (Roman Catholic)- continues to have the greatest impact. Arts The Catholic churches and architecture remain the most significant source of influence. 2. American Influence Language (English) — This had a significant effect on Filipino culture, since English became the dominant language beside Tagalog, the official Filipino language. Government and Economic system Educational system Clothing and Food Prevailing Filipino Values and Attitudes that Perpetuate GBV and Victim Blaming Victim-blaming — which occurs when survivors are wrongfully accused and often held responsible for the crime perpetrated against them, causes emotions of powerlessness, humiliation, and guilt. Beatriz Torre an assistant professor at the University of the Philippines Diliman Department of Psychology, highlighting 3 domains that are particularly prevalent in the Philippines: 1. “She asked for it” rape survivors are held responsible for putting oneself in a vulnerable situation, which directly contradicts the central element of rape — the lack of consent. 2. “It wasn’t really rape” refers to the denial of the existence of sexual violence in marriages, love partnerships, or sexual interactions. 3. “Rape is a deviant event” is based on the idea that a perpetrator is “monstrous,” and it is women’s responsibility to avoid them. Common questions of people in rape survivors (Victim blaming) 1. “Eh bakit ka naman kasi nakipaglasingan?” (Why did you get drunk with them? 2. “Why did you go out?” 3. “Bakit ka nakipag-date eh hindi mo naman pala masyado kilala?” (Why did you go out on a date when you didn’t even know them well?) 4. “Ano ba kasi ang suot mo no’ng nangyari ’yon?” (What were you wearing when it happened?) 5. “Bakit ’di ka nagsumbong agad?” (Why didn’t you come forward sooner?) Filipino Values 1. Family Orientation- the basic and most important unit of Filipino’s life is the family. 2. Joy and Humor- this famous trait is ability of Filipino to find humor in everything. 3. Flexibility, Adaptability, and Creativity — Filipinos are known to have an aversion to following a set of standardized norms or processes; they are said to work according to a “natural clock” or organic sense of time, doing things when they believe it is right. 4. Religious Adherence. 5. Ability to Survive- The Filipinos have evolved a sense of ingenuity or the capacity to live with whatever they have through time as a people who have been constantly under the authority of various powerful countries. 6. Hard Work and Industriousness- Filipinos over the years have proven time and time again that they are a people with an industrious attitude. 7. Hospitality- the legendary Filipino hospitality is not limited to the Philippines. It is everywhere wherever there are Filipinos. Types of families 1. Nuclear family — a family unit consisting of two adults and any number of children living together. The children might be biological, step or adopted. 2. Extended family — grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins, either all living nearby or within the same household. For example, if a married couple lives with either the husband or wife’s parents the family changes from a nuclear to extended household. 3. Reconstituted family — also known as a step family. A family where one or both adults have children from previous relationships living with them. 4. Single parent family — consists of a parent not living with a partner, who has most of the day-to-day responsibilities for raising the children. The children will live with this single parent for the majority of the time, but they may still have contact with their other parent. 5. Same-sex family — since civil partnerships were legalized in 2005, the number of same sex families has been growing (same-sex marriage was legalized in 2014). Same-sex couples cannot conceive together, so their children may be adopted or be the biological children of one member of the couple. They may also be from a sperm donor or a surrogate birth mother. Family Structure The Structure Role. The other part of your job as a parent is to provide “structure” for your children. In this role, you give direction, impose rules, use discipline, set limits, establish and follow through with consequences, hold your children accountable for their behavior, and teach values. FILIPINO characteristics and traits: Filipinos have been described as friendly, outgoing, sensitive, easily offended, nosy, garrulous, direct, hospitable, feisty, irreverent, good natured, clever, witty, gregarious, happy, generous, easy to laugh, gracious, easy to befriend, casual, fun loving, sensitive and hospitable Personal and professional growth process: Building self-awareness in intrapersonal and interpersonal relationship Is a developing the abilities you’ll need to perform to the job as successfully as possible is something you’ll do throughout your profession. And by your interpersonal skills which you collaborate and work with others and with your intrapersonal skills which help you to recognize your own strengths and weaknesses. Intrapersonal – refers to something occurring within the individual mind or self.; there are no external parties involved. Interpersonal – refers to something involving relations between persons; two or more parties involves. DEVIANCE Social Deviance /Deviance- is approved behavior and traits, characteristics or conditions that generate a similar condemnatory, rejection reaction in others. Is an action that is likely to generate, or has generated reactions to the actor by or from certain audiences. Deviant – is the person involved in deviance Absolutist Definitions of Deviance- Imply something about society’s relationship with the person who is considered deviant. The attribute or behavior that serves as the basic reason for defining a person as deviant in the first place is considered pervasive and essential to his/her entire character. (Hills 1980) In short, the deviant act of trait determinates the overall worth of the individual (Katz, 1975) Relativist definition of deviance- states that deviance is not inherent in any particular act, belief or condition, instead it is socially constructed, a creation of collective human judgements and ideas, like beauty, it is in the eye of the beholder, Consequently no act is universally or naturally deviant. The relative approach is useful when the focus of the study is the process by which some group of people or some type of behavior is defined as deviant. Characteristics of Deviance Deviance is Universal, but there are no universal forms or deviance. Deviance is a social definition. It is not a quality of the act; it is how we define it. It is not the act; it is how we label it. Social groups make rules and enforce them, rules are socially constructed, and social groups utilize social control mechanism to ensure they are adhered to. Deviance is contextual. Deviant behavior – behavior which does not conform to social expectation. Behavior that is regarded as wrongdoings that generate negative reactions in persons who witness or hear about it. Crime: 1. Crime is defined by authorized agents. 2. Crime is defined to describe behaviors conflicting with the interests of people with power to shape public policy. 3. Criminal definitions are applied by the segments of society that have the power to shape the enforcement and administration of criminal law. 4. Criminal definitions shape behavioral patterns. 5. Conceptions of crime are constructed and diffused in the segments of society through different media. 6. The social reality of crime is constructed by the formulation and application of criminal definitions, the development of behavior patterns related to criminal definitions, and the construction of criminal conceptions. Norms- are behavioral codes or prescriptions that guide people into actions and self- presentations conforming to social acceptability. Emile Durkheim- is simply what is defined as not normal by norms, values or laws-formation of values enforced by institutions. Robert Merton- adaptation of individuals to the dominant culture. Fundamental Approaches to the Explanation of Deviance 1. The cause is within the deviant; the goal was to discover individual characteristics contributing to becoming involved in deviant behavior. In short, this first approach concerned explaining the deviant by means of biological and psychological positivism. 2. The other approach stressed the importance of social factors as a cause of deviance. The goal was to explain both the existence of deviant behaviors and its distribution in society. Critical Review Biological theories offer a very limited explanation of crime We know too little about the links between genes and human behaviors to draw firm conclusions A biological approach looks at the individual; it offers no insight into how some kinds of behavior come to be defined as deviant in the first place. Personality Factors Walter Reckless & Simon Dinitz illustrate the psychological approach. Asked teachers to categories 12 years old male students as either likely or unlikely to get into trouble with the law. Then they interviewed the boys and their mothers to assess each boy’s self-concept & they related to others. “Good boys” displayed a strong conscience “bad boys” had a weaker conscience, displayed little tolerance for frustration and felt out of step with conventional cultural. Types of Deviance Deviance is often divided into two types of deviant activities: 1. Formal Deviance- crime is the violation of formally enacted laws e.g. robbery, theft, rape, murder and assault. 2. Informal Deviance-violations of informal social norms, norms that have not been codified into law. e.g. picking one’s nose, belching loudly (in some culture), or standing too close to another unnecessarily (again, in some cultures). Individual deviance Cultural deviation: deviates in behavior from the norms of culture. Psychological deviation/ Personality disorder: deviates from the norms in personality e.g. psychotic, neurotic, paranoid etc. Group deviance Members of an organized group in which a particular deviant behavior is practiced. Society considers the group deviant but with them, members are not deviant (Gay Club) Characteristics Reinforcement the deviation, Emotional, Protection, Cultivate new deviants Private Language, Rigid stereotype behavior. Types of Deviance Deviant Institution- An institution that practices a particular behavior. Institutions deviance when members of particular institution are engaged in particular deviant behavior. Admired Behavior: “Good” or “Admirable” behavior that breaks social norms… Ex.: extreme heroism… saving another person’s life while putting yours at risk Odd Behavior: Things like strange ways of dressing, being a “cat lady”, etc. Behaviors that are not criminal, but still differ from acceptable behavior. Bad Behavior: Generally this behavior is law breaking/ criminal behavior. Classification of Deviance Primary deviance Refers to the process of defining behavior as abnormal or usual in that conventions or expected behavior are not followed. Deviation remains primary as long as they are rationalized or dealt with as functions of a socially acceptable role. Refers to the initial act of rule breaking (Lemert, 1951) Behavior that does not conform to the social norms, but the behavior might be temporary, fleeting, exploratory, trivial, or especially, concealed from the most differently, it is not internalized as a part of a person’s self-concept. Secondary deviance Occurs when a person who has been labeled a deviant accepts that new identity and continues the deviant behavior. The change in behavior which results from being labeled as deviant. Labeling produces social pressures to conform to certain expectations and therefore are label becomes a self- fulfilling prophecy who are institutionalized tend to become dependent and labeled behavior such as mental illness may be reinforced. Elements useful in Understanding Deviance Deviance as negative quality- Deviance and conformity are necessarily linked together: each implies the existence of the other. Good cannot exist without reference to evil, its opposite. The philosopher Jack D. Douglas has noted the importance of categorical distinctions between right and wrong side of the tracks, crime and non-crime. Deviance and Deviant Persons- For more acts of deviance there is no deviant because the individual's behavior is normalized by the person's reference group. Behaviors that may violate the conventions is observed by the others but explained away by such words as, "I didn't know what I was doing". Deviant Behavior and Deviant Attributes- Thomas Wolfe, the novelist, recounts the pain and strangeness he felt as a youth who was six feet seven inches tall before basketball became popular. Deviant Statuses- How people are categorized in our society 1. Master Statuses- judges and auto workers are in occupation that earns them a particular status, and this is said to be their master status.  Auxiliary traits where by judges are assumed to be male, white, and middle aged or older. People who tend to be surprise when they meet or see judges who are black or young or female. 2. Utility of Status Categories is they are providing instance recognition. This facilities our understanding about other people in our world and what they do. While Status Categories provides a useful function in enabling people or recognize others without reconstructing their entire background, they also serve to separate persons from one another. The Social Foundation of Deviance 1. Deviance varies according to cultural norms. 2. People become deviant as others define them that way. 3. Both norms and the way people define situations involve social power. 4. Deviance affirms cultural values and norms. 5. Responding to deviance clarifies moral boundaries. 6. Responding to deviance brings people together. 7. Deviance encourages social change. Theoretical Foundations Strain Theory (Robert K. Merton) Deviant behavior, according to strain theory, is an unavoidable result of people's discomfort when they are deprived of opportunities to fulfill culturally valued goals. For example, despite the fact that wealth is only accessible to a small percentage of the population, Western society places a high value on economic achievement. As a result, some people from the lower classes resort to illegal or unethical tactics to get financial resources. Differential Association Theory People learn values, attitudes, tactics, and motives for criminal activity through their contacts with others, according to differential association theory. Differential association is a social psychological theory that attempts to explain how someone becomes a criminal. The hypothesis states that when the definitions that encourage breaking the law outnumbers those that do not; an individual will participate in criminal activity. Specific definitions in support of breaking the law could be used. Furthermore, even if a person has the desire to commit a crime, they must possess the appropriate abilities. These talents could be sophisticated and difficult to master, such as those involved in computer hacking, or they could be simple and easy to learn, such as stealing things from stores. Social Control Theory The theory's primary question is why people obey the law. According to the notion, people engage in criminal activities because their social bonds have weakened. "When social constraints on antisocial behavior are weakened or absent, delinquent behavior emerges," according to social control theory. In other words, when an individual has experienced a lack of social connections or a lack of social network that would normally prevent criminal activity, the likelihood of the individual engaging in criminal activity increases. Deterrence Perspective According to deterrence theory, people do not commit crimes because they are afraid of being caught, but rather because they are motivated by a deep moral sense. People are most likely to be deterred from committing a crime if the punishment is immediate, certain, and harsh, according to deterrence theory. For example, deterrence theory states that if there is a low likelihood of being caught or if the punishment for being caught is only a warning, you are more likely to steal the candy bar. The three (3) deterrence hypothesis has been criticized since it is based on three assumptions. It is presumptively assumed that people: 1. Understand the consequences of committing a crime. 2. Possess excellent control of their behaviors 3. Think things through and make decisions based on logic rather than emotion. These three assumptions are simply not true in the case of many crimes. Even still, the deterrence idea appears to have some merit, particularly when it comes to drunk driving. Interactionist/Labelling Perspective- Labeling theory is a sociological approach to deviance that focuses on how social control agents attach stigmatizing stereotypes to certain groups and how the stigmatized adjust their behavior after being labeled. Because classifying someone as unlawfully deviant might lead to undesirable behavior, this notion is most typically related with the sociology of crime. Describing someone as a criminal, for example, can lead to negative reactions from others, leading to the person acting out. When studying the consequences of labeling, labeling theorists distinguish between formal and informal labels. Formal labels are labels given to people by people with formal position and the ability to recognize aberrant behavior. Labels can also be attributed to someone by groups of individuals who do not have the official power to do so. Ethno-methodology Perspective- Ethnomethodology is a sociological paradigm that focuses on how people, as rational actors, make sense of their daily lives through practical reasoning rather than formal logic. It is concerned with parts of the social world that are taken for granted. It focuses on how people make meaning of their daily lives and how they hold their social environments responsible to themselves. It is an approach to the study of social life that investigates the everyday tactics employed by individuals of specific contexts to create social order. Ethnomethodology is concerned with the relationship between acts and accounts, just as ethnographic studies are. It presupposes that members are concerned with producing recognizable acts and treats action as always accountable. Ethno methodological studies aim to treat members' techniques without irony, regardless of whether they come from the social sciences or other sectors of social action. Conflict Perspective- Conflict perspective refers to the inequalities that exist in all societies globally, and based on social differences among the dominant group and all of the other groups in society. Deviant behaviors are actions that do not comply with social institutions. The institution's ability to change norms, wealth, or status comes into conflict with the individual. The legal rights of poor folks might be ignored, while the middle class side with the elites rather than the poor. Critical Perspective It means to be able to compare and discuss different attitudes towards and interpretations of that subject. Also, to understand the background of those attitudes and interpretations and criminal justice is the system of practices and institutions of governments directed at upholding social control, deterring and mitigating crime, or sanctioning those who violate laws with criminal penalties and rehabilitation efforts. And these are three basic elements that constitute the police, the courts, and punishment. The police maintain public order by enforcing the law. Police use personal discretion in deciding whether and how to handle a situation. Courts rely on an adversarial process in which attorneys-one representing the defendant and one representing the crown-present their cases in the presence of a judge who monitors legal procedures. In practice, courts resolve most cases through a plea bargain. Also, these are four jurisdictions for punishment: retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation, and societal protection. Community-bases corrections include probation and parole. Chicago Perspective Provides an enduring, multidisciplinary framework taught by the world's best business school faculty that will empower you to turn business challenges into opportunities, in any industry, anywhere in the world. Gender Perspective The gender perspective focuses particularly on gender- based differences in status and power, and considers how such discrimination shapes the immediate needs, as well as the long term interest of women and men. There are 3 Main Gender Perspective: 1. Structural functionalism - understands human behavior as part of systems that help keep society organized and functioning. From this perspective gender is a means of organizing society into distinct roles that complement each other. 2. Symbolic Interactionism - symbolic interactionism is viewing society as composed of symbols that people. Use to establish meaning, develop views about the world, and communicate with one another. We are thinking beings who act according to how we interpret situations. 3. Gender Conflict Theory- from this perspective gender is a structural system that distributes power and privilege to some and disadvantage to others. According to conflict theory, social problems are created when dominant groups exploit or oppress subordinate groups. Feminist Perspective Feminist theory has developed in 3 waves. The first wave focused on suffrage and political rights. The second wave focused on social inequality between the genders and the third wave was greatly focused on reproductive rights for women. The goal of first wave was to open up opportunities for women, with a focus on suffrage or the right to vote in political elections. The goal of second wave is to show the equality and rights of women and to attain equal opportunities. The goal of third wave is to allow women to make their own choices about their body and allow them to have access to birth control and abortion. Types of Anxiety Disorders: Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) — Long-lasting anxiety that is not focused on one object or situation. Phobias There are different types of phobia: - Simple phobias: These might involve a disproportionate fear of specific objects, scenarios, or animals. A fear of spiders is a common example. - Social phobia: Sometimes known as social anxiety, this is a fear of being subject to the judgment of others. People with social phobia often restrict their exposure to social environments. - Agoraphobia: This term refers to a fear of situations in which getting away may be difficult, such as being in an elevator or moving train. Many people misunderstand this phobia as a fear of being outside. Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD; also known as Social Phobia) — Describes an intense f ear and avoidance of negative public scrutiny, public embarrassment, humiliation, or social interaction. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) — Anxiety disorder that results from a traumatic experience. It can also result from long-term (chronic) exposure to a severe stressor. Panic Disorder — A person has brief attack of intense terror and apprehension. Selective Mutism (SM) — Disorder in which a person who is normally capable of speech does not speak in specific situations or to specific people. Selective mutism usually co-exists with shyness or social anxiety. Bipolar Disorder — Known as manic depression, is a mental disorder that causes periods of ddepression and periods of elevated mood. The elevated mood is significant and is known as mania or hypomania, depending on its severity, or whether symptoms of psychosis are present. 1. Mania — State of abnormally elevated arousal, affect, and energy level. Although mania is often conceived as a “mirror image” to depression, the heightened mood can be either euphoric or irritable. 2. Hypomania — Llowered state of mania that does little to impair function or decrease quality of life. Conduct Disorder (CD) — A mental disorder diagnosed in childhood or adolescence that presents itself through a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which the basic rights of others or major age-appropriate norms are violated. Also often referred to “antisocial behaviors”. Eating Disorder — Affect the person’s physical and mental health by abnormal eating. Categories of Eating Disorders: 1. Binge eating disorder — eat a large amount in a short period of time. 2. Anorexia nervosa — eat very little and thus have a low body weight. 3. Bulimia nervosa — eat a lot and then try to rid themselves of the food, pica where people eat non-food items. 4. Rumination disorder — where people regurgitate food, avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder where people have a lack of interest in food, and a group of other specified feeding or eating disorders. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) — disorder in which people have recurring, unwanted thoughts, ideas or sensations (obsessions) that make them feel driven to do something repetitively (compulsions). They repeatedly doing behaviors such as handwashing, checking things or cleaning. Psychotic Disorders — A serious illness that affects the mind they experiences someone hard to think, make good judgements and emotionally. When the symptoms are severe lose touch with reality and often are unable to handle daily life. But even severe psychotic disorders usually can be treated. Schizophrenia — one type of psychotic disorder that aeffects the way of a person thinks, response, acts, and express. Main of Symptoms of Psychotic Disorder: Hallucinations — are false perceptions, such as hearing, seeing, or feeling something that is not exist Delusion — are false beliefs in which a person cannot tell what is real from what is imagined. Sex Related Behavior Necrophilia –a sexual intercourse with or attraction towards corpses. Exhibitionism –is a form of paraphilia where exhibitionist exposes their genitals, usually to unsuspecting strangers and become sexually excited when doing so. This usually starts during adolescence. Gerontophilia –a condition in which a young adult is dependent on the actuality or fantasy of erotosexual activity with a much older partner in order to initiate and maintain arousal and facilitate or achieve orgasm. Pedophilia –a sexual attraction to pubertal children. Voyeurism –gaining sexual pleasure from watching others when they are naked or engaged in sexual activity. Fetishism –is an intense sexual attraction to either inanimate objects or to body parts not traditionally viewed as sexual. Personality Disorders THEORIES Behaviorism. Behaviorism theory surmises that human and animal behavior can only be explained by conditioning. Behaviorists believe that psychology should focus on measurable and observable physical behaviors and how these behaviors can be manipulated by changes in the external environment. There is no room in behaviorist theory for thoughts or emotions, in contrast to other theories of psychology. Watson (1878–1958) John Watson was the founder of behaviorist theory. Quite innovatively for the time, he found Freudian-based explanations of behavior too theoretical and disagreed with the eugenic idea of heredity determining how one behaves. Instead, he believed that people's reactions in various situations were determined by how their overall experiences had programmed them to react. In experiments he performed in the early 1900s he showed that he could condition, or train, children to respond to a certain stimulus in a way that was different from what their normal response would be in the absence of such training. Edward Thorndike's “Learning Theory” - Learning occurs when relationships between inputs and responses emerge. The form and frequency of S-R pairings strengthens or weakens such linkages or "habits." Thorndike’s theory consists of three primary laws 1. Law of Effect - any conduct that results in pleasurable outcomes is likely to be repeated, whereas any behavior that results in painful consequences is likely to be discontinued. 2. Law of readiness states that a succession of answers can be linked together to achieve a goal that will cause discomfort if it is not met. 3. Law of exercise states that as you practice, your connections get stronger, and as you stop practicing, your connections decrease. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was the first to introduce the concept of conditioning through his experiments with animals. His conclusions directly influenced Watson and provided him with the original scientific basis for his beliefs. In these experiments, Pavlov worked with dogs that, like most, salivated naturally in the presence of food. Because this response is innate, the animals were displaying an unconditioned response (salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (food). Pavlov then, for the sake of experimentation, began to produce a metronome sound at the time of each feeding. Eventually, the dogs started to drool after hearing it and in anticipation of food, even when none was present. THEORIES AND ITS APPLICATION TO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE Family System Theory Murray Bowen According to Bowen, a family is a system in which each member had a role to play and rules to respect. Members of the system are expected to respond to each other in a certain way according to their role, which is determined by relationship agreements. Within the boundaries of the system, patterns develop as certain family member's behavior is caused by and causes other family member's behaviors in predictable ways. Maintaining the same pattern of behaviors within a system may lead to balance in the family system, but also to dysfunction. Rational Choice Theory it is an essential idea in social work because it explains how people make decisions. Every decision is completed by first assessing the costs, risks, and advantages of that decision, according to the concept of rational choice theory. Choices that are unreasonable to one person may seem perfectly rational to another dependent on the individual's desires. Conflict theory explains how power disparities affect individuals and societies. This theory may be used by social workers to identify and combat both the causes and symptoms of inequality. Social Exchange Theory Relationships are said to be founded on a cost-benefit analysis. Each individual strives to maximize their benefits and is expected to return for the benefits gained. Relationships may be terminated when the hazards outweigh the possible advantages. When one person in a partnership has more personal resources than the other, that person is expected to have more influence. Transpersonal Theory holds that each human has a consciousness that extends beyond the personal identity with the self (Vaughan, 1979). This awareness may be comprehended and embodied by using a developmental psychospiritual paradigm (Rowan, 2005; Vaughan, 1979). FIVE MAJOR PRACTICE MODELS IN SOCIAL WORK 1. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy focuses on how ideas and feelings impact action, as well as how self-destructive conduct may lead to psychological issues Clients are assisted by social workers who use cognitive behavioral therapy approaches to discover self-destructive ideas and behaviors that affect negative feelings and actions. 2. Crisis Intervention Model employed for clients in crisis and trauma, such as victims of domestic abuse, and for clients who need assistance to avert bodily injury or suicide 3. Narrative Therapy is the process of detaching a person from their problem(s) and assisting the person in realizing that they have the ability to change their life story, also known as the narrative? When individuals evaluate the story from an outside viewpoint, narrative therapy helps them recognize that they are not their issues, but that they are distinct from them and can repair them. 4. Solution-Focused Therapy entails the social worker and client identifying a problem and developing a solution based on the client's strengths. 5. Task- Centered Practice A social worker divides a difficulty into doable steps. The individual has agreed to fulfill the timeframes for completing the assignments. Task-centered practice is a goal-oriented type of social work that assists clients in making consistent progress toward bettering their lives. SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT 4.1 DISCUSS THE RELATIONSHIP OF SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT AND THE SOCIAL WORK PROFESSION. Social Environment - A person's social environment is their society and all surroundings influenced in some way by humans. It includes all relationships, institutions, culture, and physical structures. Social Work Profession - Social work is a practice-based profession that promotes social change, development, cohesion and the empowerment of people and communities. Social work practice involves the understanding of human development, behavior and the social, economic and cultural institutions and interactions. Social Worker Social workers are professionals who aim to enhance overall well-being and help meet basic and complex needs of communities and people. Social workers work with many different populations and types of people, particularly focusing on those who are vulnerable, oppressed, and living in poverty. Social workers are educated and trained to address social injustices and barriers to their client’s overall wellbeing. Some of these include poverty, unemployment, discrimination and lack of housing. They also support clients and communities who are living with disabilities, substance abuse problems, or experience domestic conflicts. Social workers often fine-tune their practice with a focus on a level of interventions and types of communities they wish to serve. A clinical social worker, for example, focuses on diagnoses, treatments and prevention of mental, emotional and behavioral issues. On the other hand, a social worker may focus on research and development for small or large scale programs to help the community, like medic aid. Relationship of Social Environment and the Social Work Profession Environmental Social Work - environmental social work are scant and there are various terms and a range of interpretations of the practice that exist. Using a concept analysis framework, we identify the attributes and characteristics of environmental social work, develop an operational definition and use a case study to illustrate the practice of environmental social work. In this way, we seek to improve clarity, consistency and understanding of environmental social work practice among educators, practitioners and researchers. In essence, environmental social work assists humanity to create and sustain a biodiversity planetary ecosystem and does this by adapting existing social work methods to promote societal change. As a social worker, you'll work in a variety of settings within a framework of relevant legislation and procedures, supporting individuals, families and groups within the community. You may work in homes or schools, hospitals or on the premises of other public sector and voluntary organizations. Person-In-Environment The person-in-environment perspective in social work is a practice-guiding principle that highlights the importance of understanding an individual and individual behavior in light of the environmental contexts in which that person lives and acts. The perspective has historical roots in the profession, starting with early debates over the proper attention to be given to individual or environmental change. Theoretical approaches that have attempted to capture the meaning of person-in-environment are presented, as well as promising, conceptual developments. A person-in-environment perspective is said to provide a more adequate framework for assessing an individual and his or her presenting problem and strengths than an approach that focuses solely on changing an individual's behavior or psyche, or one that focuses solely on environmental conditions. 4.2 ANALYZE THE THREE LEVELS OF SOCIAL WORK ASSESSMENT AND INTERVENTION ALONG MICRO, MEZZO AND MACRO ENVIRONMENT Three Levels of Social Work Assessment Social workers perform their roles and responsibilities within three interrelated levels of practice: micro, mezzo, and macro. These systems of practice use different methodologies to provide services to diverse populations, but they all operate within the Person-in-Environment (PIE) Theory. Based on the importance of environmental factors on human behavior, PIE provides the central framework for social work practice. This theoretical premise connects the three systems, helping social workers to understand the complex set of societal influences that affect their clients' issues. Micro Social Work Micro social work typically describes the individualized focus used by licensed clinical social workers (LCSW) providing direct services, interventions, and support to individuals, families, and groups. These social workers offer one-on- one counseling and small-group assessment in a variety of therapeutic settings, including healthcare, mental health, and school facilities. The micro level, most often associated with traditional clinical social work, addresses the needs of society's most vulnerable groups, including children, the  elderly, domestic violence victims, and those with mental illness. Some micro social workers also provide non-clinical services, such as connecting clients with resources to improve their well-being or cope with emergencies. Mezzo Social Work Mezzo social workers may offer direct individual services, their primary focus centers on problem-solving on behalf of groups of clients, or "client systems." These social workers identify factors that affect the well-being of multiple clients within organizations like schools or social service agencies, or within a small community, such as youth at-risk in an inner-city neighborhood. Mezzo social workers collaborate with other client systems and agencies, implementing programs and advocating for services and resources. Micro social workers often engage in mezzo-level social work practices to help their clients achieve treatment goals. For example, school counselors may develop substance abuse prevention workshops to benefit students dealing with these issues. Macro Social Work Macro-level social work addresses the challenge of alleviating societal problems to improve the quality of life locally, nationally, and internationally. Stokes, who calls this "big picture" social work, views macro social workers as the ones "in charge of creating the system and not just managing it." While micro social work focuses on individuals and mezzo approaches emphasize small groups and organizations, macro social work confronts issues at the systems-level. The Five Environmental Systems The ecological systems theory holds that we encounter different environments throughout our lifespan that may influence our behavior in varying degrees. These systems include the micro system, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macro system, and the chronosystem. 1. The Micro System The micro system's setting is the direct environment we have in our lives. Your family, friends, classmates, teachers, neighbors and other people who have a direct contact with you are included in your micro system. The micro system is the setting in which we have direct social interactions with these social agents. The theory states that we are not mere recipients of the experiences we have when socializing with these people in the micro system environment, but we are contributing to the construction of such environment. 2. The Mesosystem The mesosytem involves the relationships between the microsystems in one's life. This means that your family experience may be related to your school experience. For example, if a child is neglected by his parents, he may have a low chance of developing positive attitude towards his teachers. Also, this child may feel awkward in the presence of peers and may resort to withdrawal from a group of classmates. 3. The Exosystem The exosystem is the setting in which there is a link between the context where in the person does not have any active role, and the context where in is actively participating. Suppose a child is more attached to his father than his mother. If the father goes abroad to work for several months, there may be a conflict between the mother and the child's social relationship, or on the other hand, this event may result to a tighter bond between the mother and the child. 4. The Macrosystem The macrosystem setting is the actual culture of an individual. The cultural contexts involve the socioeconomic status of the person and/or his family, his ethnicity or race and living in a still developing or a third world country. For example, being born to a poor family makes a person work harder every day. 5. The Chronosystem The chronosystem includes the transitions and shifts in one's lifespan. This may also involve the socio-historical contexts that may influence a person. One classic example of this is how divorce, as a major life transition, may affect not only the couple's relationship but also their children's behavior. According to a majority of research, children are negatively affected on the first year after the divorce. The next years after it would reveal that the interaction within the family becomes more stable and agreeable. 4.3 EXPLAIN THE PERSPECTIVES AND PRACTICE FRAMEWORKS IN ASSESSING THE RELATED FACTORS, ISSUES AND DYNAMICS OF FAMILIES, GROUPS, ORGANIZATIONS AND COMMUNITIES USING THE LENS OF SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE Practice Perspectives - are a means of looking at and thinking about social work practice. These frameworks focus on specific, recognized elements of a situation in order to provide direction on what could be relevant considerations by providing a conceptual lens of social functioning. Practice Frameworks- is a philosophical map that encompasses an agency's approach to social work practice with individual or community in an easily understandable format. Lens of Social Work Practice- a professional perspective or lens that is used to assist a social worker in examining and focusing on a specific aspect of social functioning in order to perform a full evaluation. Social workers use social work perspectives and practice frameworks as a starting point for developing interventions and planning their practice. It allows social workers to approach client issues from a research-based perspective. In assessing the related factors, issues and dynamics of families and groups, organizations and communities using the lens of social work practice aid social workers in better understanding complicated human behaviors and social settings, which have an impact on the lives and issues of their clients. A thorough understanding of theory aids social workers in their job by giving them a feeling of direction, purpose, and control through the use of research-based scientific evidence in theory. Choosing the proper theory for the context is one of the challenges of putting social work ideas into practice.  Complex client situations might be difficult to categorize into a single hypothesis. It's often more feasible to combine knowledge from several theories and utilize that knowledge to create complex interventions. 4.4 DEMONSTRATE THE USE OF PERSPECTIVES IN ASSESSING HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT WHICH WILL PROMOTE SOCIAL FUNCTIONING Social Functioning- According to the book of Thelma Lee Mendoza, social functioning is what results from the interaction between the two forces – the individual’s coping capacities and the demands of his situation/environment. The worker must understand this because this may provide an explanation of social functioning: Social work perspectives have a dual focus how people cope with their life tasks and the demands made by situations or environment on people. The person’s coping capacity in influenced by his/her physical condition, attitudes, values, knowledge, skills. Perceptions of reality. A social environment promotes social functional when it is experienced as: Livable Favorable Supportive Facilitative of well-functioning human beings. Engaged in situational assessments when working with their clients and should have framework for analyzing social situations. 4.5 CONSTRUCT A SCENARIO ON HOW FAMILIES, GROUPS AND COMMUNITIES RESPOND TO THE EMERGING REALITIES ON GENDER ISSUES. To begin with what is gender issue? Well, it is Any issue or concern determined by gender- based and/or sex-based differences between women and men. Let us start with the first scenario. Scenario 1: Matthew is gay, since he was little, he always wants what a little girl wants. Loves seeing color pink, love wearing the skirt of his mom and trying to pretend he has a long hair with a piece of handkerchief. He thought that at the age of 5 that is normal. But he notices it is not same with other little boys because his preference is always different than what the other little boy has. Time had pass and He gave himself a time to really determine who is he, and it did not change since elementary he knew what he already wants. Moreover, Matthew’s dad is an army officer and he is the only son out of four siblings. Additionally, as time goes by Matthew is now a high school student every time, he is trying to tell his father what he likes and what his gender preference is, fear always comes first because he knows that his dad is a conservative person, and would not allow him with what he wants and probably would be the cause of their family’s chaos. One day, on Matthew’s 21st birthday he invited all his friends over to a resort a dress over like a women. Wearing dress, wig and a full make-up. While they are having fun Matthew’s dad surprise him together with his mother. Everyone is surprised but what they saw but Matthew’s dad did not give an unwanted reaction rather he hugs his son and shouted “finally you revealed your true self and now you are happy”. Matthew started to cry because he is in disbelief that his conservative dad is accepting him without any judgements and is happy for him, all of them hugged and cry and Matthew’s dad said you could have told me earlier because I know that since you were little your choice is different from the others. I am your dad and I know you better than the others I am just waiting for you to reveal yourself but now since we all know I hope you will have a happy heart and always be true to yourself. Matthew once again cried and put all his dad’s word directly to his heart. As a conclusion, often we misjudged others and even ourselves but it is shown in this scenario that it is always right when you are honest and true to yourself because no one will accept you if you are not accepting yourself, your parents are your number one supporter even your gender preference is different with what the norm tells you to have. 4.6 DISCUSS THE FAMILY AS A BASIC UNIT OF THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT IN SOCIAL WORK FAMILY is a group of people, who considered themselves related by blood, marriage or adoption is commonly binds by marriage, a mating arrangement usually marked out by a ritual of some sort to indicate the couple’s new public status. A. FAMILY LIFE Types of Family Nuclear - if a family is composed of husband, wife, and children. Extended - when in addition to the nuclear unit, grandparents, uncles and cousins are considered members of the family. Family of Orientation - when children within the family grow up. Family of Procreation - when the couple has their first child born. Role of marriage in family Marriage defined the role of each member of the family. The father, who is expected to provide the material needs of the family, the mother who should teach the children good things and positive values, and the children who should be the joy of their parents, must show respect and total obedience, especially during children's formative years. A. Patterns of Mate Selection  Whom to marry will product to the welfare of the community as a whole. 1. Endogamy - these are set of norms specifying that people must marry within their own group that belongs to same race, tribe, and social status. 2. Exogamy - a marriage binds between two individuals who do not belong to the same group. B. Pattern of age at Marriage C. Accepted as fact is, one marries upon age of majority (18 years of age), psychologists have the opinion that it is more likely that marriage will be a successful one if the parties are matured. At the age of 18 and above, a person is expected to be exhibit maturity. B. Pattern of inheritance In a contemporary society, where material wealth spells a lot of difference, inheritance is always a subject of discussion. The passing of inheritance; property, titles and other rights to the next generation may give rise to family dispute or misunderstanding. D. Pattern of Descent Descendants traced to kinship of children to their parents to establish affiliation to indicate who the relatives of whom are. This process is called system of descent. When descent is traced on both father and mother of the child, the system is called bilateral, meaning the child is related to the relatives of both father and mother. It is patrilineal system if descent is traced only to the relatives of the father; it means that the relatives of the child's mother are not kinsmen of the child. Matrilineal system, descent is figured on the mother's side, and children are not considered related to their father's relatives.