Psychology Quiz Notes PDF

Personality : refers to the internal characteristics in thinking, acting and feeling. Personality traits are internally-based and stable characteristic Trait theorists use ‘factor analysis’ to count how many basic personality traits are needed to describe a human’s personality Five-factor model of...

Personality : refers to the internal characteristics in thinking, acting and feeling. Personality traits are internally-based and stable characteristic Trait theorists use ‘factor analysis’ to count how many basic personality traits are needed to describe a human’s personality Five-factor model of personality (OCEAN) : 1. Openness → curious, sensitive, open to new experience 2. Conscientiousness → responsible, prefer planned activity, require “Need for Achievement”, high self-control 3. Extraversion → assertive, seek excitement, sociable, action-oriented 4. Agreeableness → friendly, believe people are trust-worthy, emphasize social harmony 5. Neuroticism → anxious, depressed, poor emotion control Five-factor model of personality is universal, consistent among people above 30, can shift across cultures, and measured by NEO-PI Filler items refer to things in a test that do not count in the result and are used to avoid people to recognize the test pattern Humanistic Approach (by Maslow) : → self-actualization is a human’s maximum potential drive which is built genetically → emphasize the importance of freedom and potential for personal growth → Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs : Social Cognitive Approach of Personality (by Albert Bandura) : → study how cognitive can affect personality → emphasize conscious awareness, belief, goal and expectation → Albert Bandura believed that perceptions can influence situations, which require 3 key processes and factors: 1. Observational learning 2. Locus of control (a person’s perception on what extent can they control on what’s happening on them) → Internal locus of control (i can control my faith) = “if i work hard, i got good grade” → External locus of control (other things or environment affect my faith) = “i failed my exam because my teacher bias” 3. Self-efficacy (the belief of one can succeed) Psychoanalytical Approach of Personality (by Sigmund Freud) → explain the personality problems and psychological disorders with the childhood experiences, unconscious motives and conflicts → solve sexual and aggressive desires → use psychoanalytical theory on treating patients → Three Part of Personality 1. Ego - Secondary process thinking which focus on reality principle  - Developed during Latency period (6-puberty) - Act as an intermediate between Id and Superego to transform the needs into reality - Plan and evaluate information from outside world - Help release sexual energy while considering the reality 2. Id - Primary process thinking which focus on pleasure principle - Unconscious desires and sexual energy - Cannot distinguish reality from fantasy 3. Superego - Focus on moral and ethical values, social constraints - Make sure people follow the ethical codes by checking the Ego, or else will result in shame and guilt - Does not help release sexual energy → Defense Mechanism (RDRDRPRS) - Repression (forget the emotionally-threatening memories) - Denial (refuse to believe the painful truth) - Rationalization (make false excuses on unacceptable behavior) - Sublimation (transform or undesirable behaviors into acceptable and admirable behaviors) → Psychosexual Development - each stage focuses on a specific erogenous zone - fixation may occur when there is over-gratification or over-frustration due to the remained libido 1. Oral Stage - 0 - 1.5 yr old - Gratification from mouth movements, including sucking, chewing and biting - Erogenous zone : mouth, lips, tongue 2. Anal Stage - 1.5 - 3 yr old - Gratification from delivering and withholding the feces & toilet training - Erogenous zone : anus 3. Phallic Stage - 3 - 6 yr old - Gratification from dominating the genitals - Possession and erotic desires on opposite-sex parent & Hostility towards same-sex parent - Erogenous zone : penis, clitoris 4. Latency Stage - 6 - puberty (12 yr old) - No erogenous zone  5. Genital Stage - Puberty and onwards - Gratification from forming relationships with others and sexual contact, from work and love - Erogenous zone : penis, clitoris Emotion → physical component - resulted from the autonomic nervous system - fight or flight response - heart rate, breathing rate, sweating, pupil dilate, digestion → behavioral component - the product of motor neurons - facial expressions and gestures - "facial feedback hypothesis" (assume that the facial muscles send signals to the brain so that the brain can identify what emotion is being experienced) → cognitive component - the cognitive appraisal of the situation identify the type of emotion → Culture and gender differences (influenced by socialization) - [culture] : - Western (individualism → encourage the expression of emotions) - Asian (collectivism → discourage the expression of anger) - [gender] : - Boys (act as protector and strong, encourage to express anger and hostility) - Girls (tender and emotional, encourage to express sadness, shame and guilt) Theory of emotions 1. James Lange Theory of emotions → the perception of bodily arousal due to the stimulus provides the feeling aspect of emotions [stimulus → bodily arousal → feeling aspects of emotions] 2. Cannon-Bard Theory of emotions → the activation of thalamus due to the stimulus provide the emotional feelings and bodily arousal simultaneously [stimulus → activation of thalamus → emotional feelings + bodily arousal] 3. Schachter's Cognitive Theory of emotions → the perception of the bodily arousal according to the past experience and situational cue due to the stimulus provide the emotional feelings and behavioral response [stimulus → bodily arousal + past experience & situational cues → emotional feelings & behavioral response] 4. Model of Emotion (by Lazarus) → the facial expressions and emotional feelings do not contradict with each other Motivation → motivation is the set of internal and external factors that energize our behavior and lead us to our goal → Model of motivation : refers to the process that initiate, sustain and direct activities → Drive-reduction theory : - The need produce drive, drive produce motivated behaviors which obtain the goal to eliminate the need so as to turn the body into a balanced internal state - Pushed by sth ‘unpleasant’ (e.g. money, hunger) → Incentive theory : - Pulled by incentives (e.g. good grades) - Do not require drive-reduction → Arousal Theory : - Our behavior is motivated to obtain a certain level of arousal - The level of arousal can affect our performance level - Arousal refers to the activation of body and nervous system [medium arousal level has the highest performance level] → Extrinsic motivation : - The motivation for obtaining external reinforcement and to avoid bad stimulus - 為了外在的收穫 e.g. good grades, good income → Intrinsic motivation : - The motivation for self-enhancement and personal growth - E.g. better knowledge → * we should set goals that are challenging, specific and attainable to boost confidence Problem-solving → Problem : refers to when people do not know how to reach a goal when there is a goal - ill-defined problems (lack clear specification of method) - Well-defined problems (clear specification of starting point, destination and method) → problem-solving steps : 1. Interpreting the problem (break the blocks) 2. Trying to solve the problem → Blocks in solving problems : 1. Interpretation blocks - Fixation (unable to make new interpretation of problems) - Functional fixedness (unable to see an object having another function other than its typical one) → [method to eliminate interpretation blocks] : focus on things on hand that serve similar function to the object we need 2. Strategy blocks - Over-reliance on past experience and previously successful solving strategy - May lead to mental set & ineffectiveness → Problem-solving strategies : 1. Algorithm (step-by-step solving method that guarantee a correct answer) 2. Heuristic (rely on past experience in solving similar questions), (quick answers but may be incorrect) - Working back heuristic (solving problems from goal state backward to start state) - Means-ends analysis heuristic (breakdown problems into small subgoals) Thinking : - Thinking refers to the process in processing the information to solve problems, make judgements and decisions Intelligence : - Intelligence refers to the problem-solving skills and cognitive abilities Elements of a good test in psychology : (SRV) 1. Standardization - Distribute the test to a large number of representative of the relevant population to obtain the test score and ‘test norm’ 2. Reliability (a good test should have consistent test result) - Test-retest method - Alternate form reliability - Split-half reliability  3. Validity - Content validity (the questions in the test should match with the topic) - Predictive validity (the questions should have high correlation with the test result) → *** a psychology test can be reliable & invalid Theory of intelligence : 1. Cattell and Horn → Fluid intelligence - abstract reasoning, memory, information processing speed - High among young people → Crystallized intelligence - Accumulated knowledge - High among old people 2. Robert Sternburg → Analytical intelligence (exam, test, quiz) → Practical intelligence (common sense) → Creative intelligence (to solve new and unusual problems) 3. Nature VS Nurture → Nature (heredity) → Nurture (environmental factors) → both nature and nurture are important in determining our intelligence Stress [by Han Selye] Stress : - refers to the psychological and physical body response to a changing condition, with both positive and negative events → Eustress : - positive view towards stress - serve stress as challenges and positive motivation - Can help promote health and growth → Distress : - Negative view towards stress - Anxious and worry → stress and negative emotions can affect our immune system and increase our susceptibility towards disease Stressor : - Stressor refers to stressful stimuli and situation (e.g. exam, illness, earthquake) - Stressor is unpredictable, uncontrollable, intense & repeated - According to Lazarus, the appraisal of stressors can be primary appraisal (whether the problem is relevant to us & whether the problem is positive or negative), secondary appraisal (choose coping method and evaluate resources) Reaction to stress : - Short-term stress → “fight or flight response” → physical response (e.g. headache, heart rate increase, muscle tension …) - Long-term stress → General Adaptation Syndrome 1. Alarm reaction - The body is stimulated to secrete stress hormones which lead to symptoms of illnesses 2. Resistance - The symptoms of illnesses disappear, but the resistance to other stress is lowered 3. Exhaustion - Physical response (excessive worry, frequent illnesses) - Behavioral response (avoidance) - Emotional response (anxious, irritated) - Psychological response (feel helpless, diminished hedonistic capacity) Sources of stress : 1. Environmental factors (e.g. illness, bad grades, financial burden) 2. Psychological factors (e.g. failure, unrealistic goals) 3. Conflicts → approach-approach conflicts → avoidance-avoidance conflicts → approach-avoidance conflicts 4. Change 5. Pressure (e.g. expectations, demand) Personality & Stress-coping : [Type A personality] - more easy to get angry, competitive, perfectionist - Higher chance to get cardiovascular disease [Type B personality] - More relax [Hardiness personality] - Take control of their lives, treat stressors as challenges, have a positive view towards stress and goal, make commitment Stress in workplace : → role ambiguity (unclear and not specific job responsibilities) → role conflict (unbalance between job requirement and personal expectations) == leads to burnout & workaholic Factors of people in coping with stress in workplace : 1. Hardiness (resistant to stress) 2. Organizational-based self-esteem - High sense of self adequacy (believe themselves very important and effective in a group) - Low sense of self adequacy (easily affected by job stress, more passive, feel useless) 3. Negative affectivity (more likely to express negativity and distress & high neuroticism) Ways to improve stress-coping in workplace as a manager : → 2-way communication & allow employee to participate in conversation → offer employee control on their work → define roles and have fair distribution of work in order to eliminate role ambiguity and role conflict → offer stress management program to employees The way how human are influenced : 1. Conformity → conformity refers to the change in behavior that is caused by other people or group → informative social influence (use other's opinions as a source of information) → normative social influence (follow the majority in order to gain acceptance and avoid rejection) → informational influence & normative influence & unusual and new situation = people tend to conform by using other's behavior as a guide → According to the Asch's Study [judge the length of a line], people tend to conform to the confederates due to normative influence even though they knew the answer is wrong (except the answer is too obvious) → the amount of conformity can be affected by several factors (e.g. task difficulty, group size, ambiguity…) 2. Compliance → compliance refers to a change in behavior that is requested by others, and for good social bonds → Compliance techniques : - Foot-in-the-door (small request to big request) [consistency] - Door-in-the-face (big request to small request) [reciprocity = win-win situation] - Low-ball (give out an attractive deal first, then make the deal less attractive and urge u to buy, rush decision) [consistency] - That's-not-all (additional benefit is given before the response) [reciprocity = win-win situation] 3. Obedience → obedience refers to a change in behavior that is ordered by the authority directly → In Milgram's study in obedience to authority (illustrate the capacity of obeying the orders of a perceived authority), teachers follow the order to deliver electric shock on students - 65% teachers continue to obey the order and apply the maximum 450 voltage on students VS others do not continue due to ethical issues - 21% teachers obey the rule when the experimenter (= authority) left the room - 48% teachers obey the rule when they perform the experiment in small town office instead of Yale University - Obedience rate become 40% when teachers and students are in the same room (= can hear voices and see the students) - [Teacher responsibility] 90% when there is another teacher who serves as a role model - [Experimenter unanimity] 0% when there are disagreement between two experimenters How individuals can be influenced in A GROUP : (SSDGG) 1. Social facilitation → social facilitation refers to a phenomenon that individuals tend to perform better in the presence of other people → simple and well-learned task : good performance in the presence of others → difficult and poorly-learned task : bad performance in the presence of others 2. Social loafing → social loafing refers to people tend to make less effort to achieve their goal when working in a group → diffusion of responsibility make people avoid taking responsibility for actions because they assume others will do so 3. Deindividuation → deindividuation refers to people lose their sense of self-awareness & perform undesirable and antisocial behavior when in a group 4. Groupthink → groupthink refers to when group members accept the group consensus without critical thinking and thus lead to poor decision making → groupthink usually occurs when an important decision is made under a stressful environment 5. Group polarization → group polarization refers to a situation when a group of like-minded people strengthen each other’s opinions and these opinions become more extreme as they are discussed → social comparison theory (look for the socially correct side) → persuasive argument theory (look for socially correct side first, or look at the informative influence side if there is more pro arguments) Attitude → attitude refers to an individual evaluation of a target, which influence our behavior → self-perception theory (refers to when people are unsure about their attitudes, they will observe their own behaviors) Culture → [According to Barnouw] culture refers to the attitudes, values, belief and behavior of a group of people, communicated from one generation to the next via language or other means of communication (e.g. gesture, action) → [According to Matsumoto] culture refers to a dynamic system of rules established by groups in order to ensure their survival, involves the beliefs, values, attitude, norms and behavior, culture is relatively stable but can change across time Concept of culture : - The 3 levels of uniqueness in human mental programming [by Hofstede] Manifestation of culture : - The Onion Concept [by Hofstede] (SHRV) 1. Symbol (superficial layer) → things that best represent a national culture or carry special meaning to people of the same national culture (e.g. dress, language, objects) → can be easily created or copied by other cultures 2. Heroes → people dead or alive 3. Rituals → socially essential activities of a culture 4. Values (most hidden layer) → the idea of how things “ought to be” → strongly influence social behavior Culture-related values in workplace : (PUIML) [By Hofstede] 1. Power distance (less powerful member tend to accept unequal power distribution) → express disagreement → perception of decision-making style — Autocratic VS Democratic  → preference of decision-making style 2. Uncertainty avoidance (the extent of each member who are anxious to uncertain attempt will minimize uncertainty to reduce anxiety) → strong uncertainty avoidance : prefer explicit rule, wants to clarify everything → weak uncertainty avoidance : prefer flexible rules 3. Individualism VS Collectivism (refers to whether one’s identity is determined by personal choices or collective groups) → individualism : display individual personalities & encourage honest sharings of individual feelings → collectivism : act as a member of a long term group & unquestioning loyalty & does not encourage direct appraisal of employees 4. Masculinity VS Femininity → Masculine culture : value competitiveness, assertiveness, wealth and quantity of life → Feminine culture : value relationship and quality of life 5. Long term orientation VS Short-term orientation → Long-term orientation : behaviors focus on future → Short-term orientation : behavior focus on present and past Interdependent VS Independent : → independent self-construal : focus on self → interdependent self-construal : focus on others and a whole group Communication in culture : - Non-verbal communication : physical distance, proximity, kinesics 身勢學 and paralanguage → Kinesics (facial expressions, gestures, body movements, eye contact …) → Paralanguage (pitch and volume, convey emotion, vocally-produced sound) → high-context communication (rely on oral communication with gestures, silence, internal rules, indirect) → low-context communication (rely on speech, clear rules, direct expression) → direct communication (very direct message) → indirect communication (emphasize harmonious relationship) Reaction to cultural differences : (5D reaction) 1. Distance → avoid sth we feel different → physical, emotional and intellectual distancing 2. Denial → minimize the importance of cultures we do not familiar with, ignore the differences 3. Defensiveness → defend or protect oneself in situations where they feel threatened → e.g. the mainland kids must always have better grades than us, we are not as clever and hard-working as them 4. Devaluing → a feeling of superiority 5. Discovery 🙂 → seek greater similarity in differences of cultures Prejudice (refers to the negative attitudes towards a group of people) → prejudicial attitudes : the belief and expectations on behaviors of a group of people → sexism : prejudice on a gender group → racism : prejudice on a racial group → cognitive root of prejudice : - We cognitively simplify the world - We overestimate the similarities of individuals - We tend to pay more attention the the majority as it require less time and effort - Category-based judgment → emotional root of prejudice : - Find a scapegoat to be looked down when we feel frustrated → social root of prejudice : - Ingroup (wealthy and powerful people) - Outgroup (jobless people) Discrimination (refers to the prejudiced attitudes turned into behaviors) - [stimuli → attitude → Affect & Behavior & Cognition] Stereotype (refers to the cognitive categorization of a group of people) → [+ve] : stereotype can accurately reflect the norm of a group → [-ve] : stereotype will apply the norm to the group of people & does not allow variation Categorization → [+ve] : quickly process and organize the information about one group which can help cross cultural psychology → [-ve] : categorization creates biased judgment and unfriendly behaviors, which can lead to conflicts Ways to reduce prejudice : - Reflect - Contact - Learn Allport’s conditions for positive intergroup contact : - Everyone should have equal status - Everyone should work cooperatively - Everyone should get the chance to know each other - The intergroup effort must have the support of authorities, law or custom 4 value to maintain integration : 1. Equality (affect) 2. Acceptance (behavior) 3. Diversity (cognition) 4. Harmony (ABC)