PSY230: Personality & Transformations Lecture Notes PDF

New Menti QR code today!! Code: 9733 2350 (and its transformations) Lecture 14: Psychoanalysis Dr. William S. Ryan (Will) 01 Announcements & Study Results Lecture 02 Freud: The man & the myth Overview 03...

New Menti QR code today!! Code: 9733 2350 (and its transformations) Lecture 14: Psychoanalysis Dr. William S. Ryan (Will) 01 Announcements & Study Results Lecture 02 Freud: The man & the myth Overview 03 Key tenets of psychoanalysis 04 Stages of Psychosexual development 05 Defenses & Parapraxes 06 Critiques controversy & current applications (if time)  01. Announcements & Study Results  02. Freud: The Man & The Myth Freud is Controversial “There are no neutrals in the Freud wars. Admiration, even downright adulation, on one side; skepticism, even downright disdain, on the other. This is not hyperbole. A psychoanalyst who is currently trying to enshrine Freud in the pantheon of cultural heroes must contend with a relentless critic who devotes his days to exposing Freud as a charlatan.” - Peter Gay, Time Magazine Freud: Father of Psychoanalysis 1856 - 1939 Why should we care now? Many ideas still widely used! ○ 75% of practicing psychotherapists draw on aspects of Freudian theory. ○ Developed the idea of “talk therapy” ○ Ideas permeate modern culture Asked important questions ○ How do early childhood experiences affect adult personality? ○ Why do we sometimes behave in ways that seem counter to what we want and need? Searching for a Deeper Psychology Much of psychology “is over-concerned with recurrences, with consistency, with what is clearly manifested (the surface of personality), with what is conscious, ordered, and rational…It stops short at precisely where a psychology is needed, the point at which it is difficult to understand what is going on.” (Murray, 1938, p. 715)  “Despite a lack of preparation, I spoke quite well and without hesitation, which I ascribe to the cocaine I had taken beforehand I told about my discoveries in brain anatomy, all very difficult things that the audience certainly didn’t understand, but all that matters is that they get the impression that I understand it ” -Freud (maybe?) Sexism, Misogyny, & Homophobia, oh my!  03. Key Tenets of Psychoanalysis & Structure of the mind Ideas underlying Freud’s theory Psychic Determinism ○ Everything has a specific cause ○ Unconscious processes must exist Internal structure of the mind ○ Id, Ego, Superego Psychic conflict ○ Parts of the mind may be in conflict ○ Compromise formation Internal Structure of the mind Conscious awareness Preconscious - can be brought into awareness; memories, your surroundings Unconscious – Not directly accessible to the conscious; contains urges feelings, and ideas Structure of the mind: Id, Ego, Superego Immediate satisfaction of needs Id (“It”) Pleasure Principle: Immediate gratification of bodily desires Deals with reality; finds compromise Ego (“I”) Reality principle: Meet the needs of the id within the constraints of reality Superego Enforces rules and standards Ego Ideal: Rewards “good” behavior (“Over-I”) Conscience: Punishes “bad” behavior  Parts of the Mind “In its relation to the id, [the ego] is like a man on horseback, who has to hold in check the superior strength of the horse, [but] is obliged to guide it where it wants to go.” -Freud If the Id is the horse and the Ego is the rider, the Superego is the trainer barking instructions from outside the fence Synthetic function of the ego- tries to integrate experiences and desires  Image:Structural-Iceberg.svg Putting them Together Ideas underlying Freud’s theory Psychic/mental energy fuels the mind ○ Libido ○ Energy is finite; must be conserved ○ Homeostasis-> balance between parts of the mind Instincts ○Motivate behaviour ○ Can cause tension to build up, released when instinct is satisfied. ○ Eros/Libido & Thanatos (added later) “Doctrine of opposites”  04. STAGES OF Psychological DEVELOPMENT Theory of Psychosexual Development Characteristics of theory 1. Erogenous zone: Physical focus 2. Theme: task or conflict 3. Barriers to completing stages:  Fixation -due to overgratification or undergratification of the instinctual desires.  Regression -the person returns to an earlier stage, the one where they got fixated. 4. Adult Personality depends on successful or unsuccessful negotiation of each stage Stages of Development Oral Stage: 0-18 months (or 2 years)* Babies can’t do much besides use their mouth Mental Structure: Id Physical Focus: Mouth, lips, tongue Theme: Dependency, passivity Adult Type: Oral Character ○ Overly independent or overly needy *Different sources provide different cutoffs Stages of Development Anal Stage 18 months/2 years – 3.5 years Child begins to learn to control things Mental Structure: Ego Physical Focus: Anus Theme: Self-control, obedience Adult Type: Anal Character ○ Rigid and obedient (“anal retentive”) or ○ Anti-authority/under-controlled (“anal expulsive”) Stages of Development Phallic Stage: 3.5-7years Boys and girls (children) learn about physical differences Mental Structure: Superego Physical Focus: Sexual organs (penis) Theme: Gender Identity and sexuality Adult Type: Phallic Character ○ Rigid moral code → asexual ○ No moral code → promiscuous Oedipal/Elektra Complex Oedipal Complex (boys) ○ Love mother, fear father (castration) ○ Since can’t kill father and marry mother, identify with father → develop superego If you can’t beat him – join him! Electra Complex (girls) ○ Love mother, but no penis! Did mother let her be castrated? (Penis envy) ○ Transfers love to father to indirectly have penis ○ Since can’t kill mother and marry father, identify with mother → develop superego Stages of Development Genital Stage Latency Stage Puberty onward 7 years – puberty (13) Develop mature attitude about sex Relationships with same sex Physical Focus: Genitals peers Mental Structure: All in balance Little psychosexual development Theme: Creation, Enhancement of Learning skills Life Adult Type: Genital Character ○ Well-adjusted and balanced (rarely achieved) ○ Difficulties with intimacy, immature sexuality  Psychological development Relevant Mental Psychological Stage Timing Physical Focus Adult Character Structure Theme Dependent or Dependency, Oral Birth to 18 months Oral Id overly passivity independent 18 months to 3.5 Self-control, Obedient or Anal Anal Ego years obedience anti-authority Gender-role 3.5 years to 7 Phallus (sexual Over or under Phallic Superego identification; years organs) sexualized sexuality Creation & Genitals (esp. Mature or Genital Puberty onward All three enhancement reproduction) immature adult of life Footnote: Latency—Elementary school years  05. Defense Mechanisms & Parapraxes  Parapraxes & Defenses Manifestations or Outlets Forgetting Slips Parapraxes Psychic Tension Dreams Sexual, Aggressive, or other unresolved impulses, anxiety Jokes Defense Mechanisms Parapraxes- leakage from the unconscious mind (remember psychic determinism?) Defense Mechanisms The ego unconsciously tries to reduce anxiety by activating defense mechanisms. These can be useful (short term) because they protect against painful feelings. ○ Defense mechanisms can be normal and useful ○ Don’t solve the underlying problem (hence the need for psychotherapy to explore the source of the tension) Types of Defense Mechanisms According to Freud: Healthy people use all of them somewhat. The overuse of any one of the defense mechanisms can lead to psychological disorders  06. Controversy & Contributions Evaluating Freud’s Theory Strengths 1. Comprehensive theory Came up with a theory of “all personality and development” 2. The ideas of the unconscious and psychic tension 3. Compelling; Generates intense reactions Evaluating Freud’s Theory: Criticisms 1. Difficult to test and disprove Freud himself was not an empiricist 2. Lack of free will 3. Overemphasis on sexual drives 4. Theory is sexist and heterosexist Evaluating Freud’s Theory: Criticisms 5. Overly dark view of human nature; pessimistic 6. Lacks parsimony (it’s overly complex) 7. Limited methodology (used mostly case studies of neurotic Viennese women, and may be doctored) 8. Poorly defined psychological constructs (ideas that are not operationally defined) Contributions of Freud’s Psychoanalysis (Westen, 1998) 1. The unconscious an important role in life 2. Sexual and aggressive impulses influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. These become more regulated with development. 3. Behavior often reflects a compromise between conflicting mental processes. 4. Childhood experiences influence adult functioning. Contributions of Freud’s Psychoanalysis (Westen, 1998) 5. Mental representations of the self and others guide relationships. 6. Personality development involves movement from a socially dependent way of relating to others to a more mature independent way of relating to others. 7. Talk and insight can be helpful in solving psychological problems  What came after? Everyone was less focused on sex Neo-Freudians Retained many of Freud’s key tenants But also made key innovations Ego-Psychology Object-Relations Focus more on conscious rational Focus on interpersonal relationships processes. Relate to people based on our mental The development of the ego (self) images of them How the ego makes sense of and But these don’t always match reality integrates competing desires and Shaped by early experiences with experiences. caregivers Thank you!  (and its transformations) Lecture 15: Psychoanalysis and Neo-Psychoanalysis Dr. William S. Ryan (Will) Announcements Pre-registration grading going well- grades and feedback to be posted by Nov 1st Last midterm I viewing session: TODAY at 1-2:30 pm in SS514a Midterm II on Nov 7th during class time Location: EX100 (everyone) ○ *If there is a conflict with this location, you must indicate this here (https://forms.gle/JZEUCGh4wbUQjdgS9Links to an external site.) Covers lectures 9 through (and including) 16 and all accompanying readings. Same format as Midterm 1 Example questions to be posted by Monday 01 Defense Mechanisms & Parapraxes Lecture 02 Freud: Controversy & Contributions Overview 03 Neo-Freudians 04 Object Relations (Next Time)  01. Defense Mechanisms & Parapraxes  Parapraxes & Defenses Manifestations or Outlets Forgetting Slips Parapraxes Psychic Tension Dreams Sexual, Aggressive, or other unresolved impulses, anxiety Jokes Defense Mechanisms Parapraxes- leakage from the unconscious mind (remember psychic determinism?) Defense Mechanisms The ego unconsciously tries to reduce anxiety by activating defense mechanisms. These can be useful (short term) because they protect against painful feelings. ○ Defense mechanisms can be normal and useful ○ Don’t solve the underlying problem (hence the need for psychotherapy to explore the source of the tension) Types of Defense Mechanisms According to Freud: Healthy people use all of them somewhat. The overuse of any one of the defense mechanisms can lead to psychological disorders  02. Controversy & Contributions Evaluating Freud’s Theory: Criticisms 1. Excessive Complexity 5. Lack of free will Lack of parsimony 6. Pessimistic view of 2. Case study method human nature Freud himself was not 7. Overemphasis on sexual an empiricist drives 3. Vague definitions 8. Theory is sexist and Lack of heterosexist operationalization 4. (mostly) Untestable Evaluating Freud’s Theory: Contributions 1. Comprehensive theory Came up with a theory of “all personality and development” 2. Compelling; Generates intense reactions 3. Influence on culture and how we talk about and understand other people’s behaviour 4. He was right about somethings (or at least onto something)  Freud was right that: 1. The unconscious plays an important role in behviour 2. Sexual and aggressive impulses influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. These become more regulated with development. 3. Behavior often reflects a compromise between conflicting mental processes (e.g., cognitive dissonance) 4. Childhood experiences influence adult functioning. 5. Mental representations of the self and others guide relationships. 6. Personality development involves movement from a socially dependent way of relating to others to a more mature independent way of relating to others. 7. Talk and insight can be helpful in solving psychological problems (transference and counter transference)  What came after? Everyone was less focused on sex Neo-Freudians Retained many of Freud’s key tenants But also made key innovations Ego-Psychology Object-Relations Focus more on conscious rational Focus on interpersonal relationships processes. Relate to people based on our mental The development of the ego (self) images of them How the ego makes sense of and But these don’t always match reality integrates competing desires and Shaped by early experiences with experiences. caregivers  03. “Neo-Freudians” Who are they? Anna Freud – defense mechanisms! Alfred Adler Carl Jung Karen Horney Erik Erikson Alfred Adler (1870-1937) Individual Psychology Inferiority Instead of focusing on sex, focused on social interest (drive to relate positively and productively with others) Organ inferiority ○ At first about physical limitations Expanded to other “deficiencies” or Feelings of inferiority (Inferiority Complex) ○ Real or perceived inferiority Motivates compensatory behaviour Dealing with Inferiority Compensation ○ Make up for inferiority; strength in another area Problems that may result: ○ Superiority complex: Overcompensation (masculine protest is one type) for inferiority. Exaggerated sense of strengths ○ Inferiority Complex: Undercompensation Exaggerated sense of worthlessness Like Freud- need to find compromise or balance Patterns of behaviour used to compensate = lifestyles Carl Jung  Carl Jung’s Theory of Mind Ego Ego ○ Conscious (Jung) Personal Unconscious ○ Contains: 1) repressed and 2) unimportant info ○ Complexes: clusters of emotionally loaded thoughts Collective Unconscious ○ Inborn memories and ideas that shape thinking and behaviour ○ Transpersonal – shared across all humans Carl Jung’s Theory of Mind: The collective unconcious Archetypes- part of the collective unconscious Not consciously remembered by individuals but shape thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. Myths, fairy tales, and religious stories are similar across cultures because they stem from the same collective unconscious. Examples ○ The hero, the devil, earth mother, the snake ○ Anima: the female component of a man ○ Animus: the male component of a woman Carl Jung’s Theory of Mind Persona: outwardly visible self Shadow: dark part of the Self Self: Resides between persona & shadow ○ Tries to balance conflicting aspects of the mind (ego is just part of the self- the conscious part) Jung’s Theory of Personality: Basic Ways of Thinking Attitude: Relating to the outer world ○ Extraversion: focused outside, social, unfocused ○ Introversion: focused inside, thoughtful, private* Function: How you see the world/process information Thinking: logical, observant Feeling: evaluates in terms to value, liking, worth Sensing: use 5 senses, realistic, concrete Intuiting: use hunches, creative *Note: This is a DIFFERENT way of thinking about introversion compared to Big 5.  Jung’s 8 Personality Types Thinking Feeling Sensing Intuiting Introversion IT IF IS IN Extraversion ET EF ES EN Notice Consider Sensory Hunches Things Worth Activity Remember the MBTI? The MBTI- Types of thinking & Archetypes  Freud vs. Jung Religion not important Religious/Spiritual (Personal) unconscious Includes collective only unconscious Ego spans all levels of the Ego is conscious only mind Libido=non-sexual, general Libido=sexual life energy Development focuses on Development is life long childhood/adolescence Karen Horney & Feminine Psychology (1885-1952) Female Personality Rejection of penis envy Cultural explanation: ○ "The wish to be a man...may be the expression of a wish for all those qualities or privileges which in our culture are regarded as masculine, such as strength, courage, independence, success, sexual freedom, the right to choose a partner“ ○ Power envy Womb envy Anxiety & Neurotic Needs Basic Anxiety acquired in childhood -> neurotic needs in adulthood Neurotic needs: ○ Perfect “other half” ○ To be loved by all Unrealistic and contradictory ○ To dominate others Therefore pursuit of these needs can ○ To be entirely independent lead to contradiction and self-defeating behaviour Erik Erikson (1902-1994) Focused on development of the ego (identity) Ego: integrate individual with social environment Psychosocial development Personality is changeable and develops over the lifespan! Not all conflicts are unconscious Joan Erikson Psychosocial Development Characteristics of the theory ○ Focus on the social environment ○ Personality develops in a fixed order ○ Each state has a Psychosocial Crisis to overcome ○ Each stage has a Virtue to learn ○ Development occurs over the lifespan birth death Autonomy Identity Trust versus Initiative Industry Intimacy Generativity Integrity versus versus Shame versus versus versus versus versus Role Mistrust and Guilt Inferiority Isolation Stagnation Despair Confusion Doubt  Psychosocial Stage 1 0 – 18 months/2 years Trust vs. Mistrust Virtue = Hope and confidence (or fear) How can I be secure? Child develops hope and confidence that needs will be met by caregivers. Psychosocial Stage 2 18 months – 4 years Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt Virtue = Will (or Self-Doubt) How can I be independent? Adults pressure the child to obey, but on the other hand, child wants control of his or her own life. Psychosocial Stage 3 4 – 7 years Initiative vs. Guilt Virtue = Purpose (or Worthlessness) How can I be powerful? The child begins to anticipate life as an adult; Learning skills, initiating activities, school begins. Support from adults allows sense of initiative Psychosocial Stage 4 8 - 12 years Industry vs. Inferiority Virtue = Competence (or Incompetence) How can I be “good”? The child must develop the skills and attitudes to succeed in the world of work or otherwise contribute to society. Psychosocial Stage 5 13 – 18 years Identity vs. Role confusion Virtue = Fidelity Who am I? What are my values? The adolescent strives to figure out they are and what is and is not important. At this stage individuals choose values and goals that are consistent, personally meaningful, and useful. Psychosocial Stage 6 18 - 25 years (young adulthood) Intimacy vs. Isolation Virtue = Love How can I love? Now the goal is to find an intimate life partner with whom to share important experiences and further development, rather than becoming isolated and lonely. Psychosocial Stage 7 25 – 65 years (middle age) Generativity vs. Stagnation Virtue = Care How can I fashion a “gift”? As a person’s position in life becomes firmly set, does he or she settle in to passive comfort, or begin to turn his or her concerns to the next generation? Psychosocial Stage 8 65+ years (old age) Ego integrity vs. Despair Virtue = Wisdom How can I receive a “gift” (the gift of life)? Does the person despair about earlier mistakes? Or has the person developed wisdom from experience? Stage Psychologica Virtue Description l Crisis 1- 0-18 Trust vs. Hope Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs such as months /2 Mistrust nourishment and affection will be met. Is the years world a safe place? Will others respond to my needs 2- 2-3 Autonomy vs. Will Sense of Independence and self-mastery. years Shame/ doubt Can I do things on my own? Can I express and act on my needs and desires? 3- 3-5 Initiative vs. Purpose If ideas and activities are supported, child Guilt learns initiative. Experiences of success and failure are key. How can I be powerful? 4- 5-12 Industry vs. Com- School-aged children work towards Inferiority petence competence in skills. Failure results in feelings of inferiority. How can I be good? Stage Psychological Virtue Description Crisis 5- 12-18 Identity vs. Fidelity Adolescents search for their personal identity, Confusion leading to a sense of self. Failure results in role confusion. Who am I? How do I fit into the adult world? 6-18-25* Intimacy vs. Love Young adults seek intimate relationships. Isolation Without these, they may experience isolation. (how) can I love? 7- 25*-65 Generativity Care Adults need to create or nurture things that will vs. Stagnation outlast them. Failure leads to stagnation. How can I fashion a “gift”? 8- 65+ Integrity vs. Wisdom In old age, individuals reflect on their lives. A Despair positive reflection leads to wisdom, while failure results in despair. How can I receive a “gift” (the gift of life)? *Some versions of the model put this as high as 40 years  For quizzing yourself Age Psychological Crisis Virtue 0-18 months /2 Trust vs. Mistrust Hope years 2-4 years Autonomy vs. Shame/ doubt Will 4-7 Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 7-12 Industry vs. Inferiority Competence 12-18 Identity vs. Confusion Fidelity 18-25* Intimacy vs. Isolation Love 25*-65 Generativity vs. Stagnation Care 65+ Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom *Some versions of the model put this as high as 40 years (Some) Critiques Focused on specific social expectations ○ Culturally bound Where are the age cutoffs exactly? Still not enough about adulthood? Erikson vs. Freud: Key differences Freud Erikson Psychosexual stages Psychosocial stages Early childhood Life-span No free will Desire and ability Focused on to pursue personal unconsciousness growth Also focused on consciousness  Summary Everyone was less focused on sex Neo-Freudians Retained many of Freud’s key tenets But also made key innovations Ego-Psychology Object-Relations NEXT TIME Focus more on conscious rational Focus on interpersonal relationships processes. Relate to people based on our mental The development of the ego (self) images of them How the ego makes sense of and But these don’t always match reality integrates competing desires and Shaped by early experiences with experiences. caregivers Thank you!  (and its transformations) Lecture 13: Culture Dr. William S. Ryan (Will) 01 Introducing culture Lecture 02 Characteristics of culture Overview 03 Individualism and collectivism 04 personality assessment across culture 05 Data! (Next Class For Fall 2024 Students)  01. INTRODUCING CULTURE What is Culture? Culture: the psychological attributes of groups, including ○ “customs, habits, beliefs and values that shape emotions, behavior and life pattern” (Tseng, 2003) ○ How we think about the self and others Culture may be shared based on: ○ Language, Geography, Organization, Interests, etc. Just about any group of people that share similarities can be considered a culture Culture can be evoked or transmitted* Culture and Psychology Cultural Psychology ○ Focuses on how cultural norms and values are internalized by individuals. ○ Examines the influence of these cultural norms and values on cognition, emotion, and behavior. ○ Interested in the unique psychological processes shaped by specific cultural contexts. Cross-cultural psychology ○ Aims to compare and contrast psychological phenomena across different cultures. ○ Seeks to identify universal aspects of human psychology and aspects influenced by specific cultural contexts. ○ Involves the scientific study of similarities and differences in human behavior, cognition, and emotion across various cultures. Culture and Psychology Why is this important? ○ Cross—cultural understanding ○ Generalizability of research and theory ○ Understanding varieties of human experience  02. Characteristics of Culture  Characteristics of Culture What characteristics can we study and compare? Etic Emic Definition The universal components of Components of ideas that are ideas across cultures particular to certain cultures Examples Duty, marriage, meeting What one’s actual duty is; parental expectations reasons for marriage; what parents expect Characteristics of culture Tough and easy Achievement and affiliation Complexity Head vs. heart Tightness looseness Dignity, face, honour Individualism collectivism Characteristics of culture Head versus heart ○ “Signature strengths” Characteristics of culture Tightness and looseness Characteristics of culture: Honor, Face, Dignity Culture of honor ○ Weak external constraints on behavior ○ People must defend resources ○ Insults are threatening, met with (threats of) violence ○ Advantageous in herding (vs. farming) economies ○ E.g., deep south of U.S., Latin America Honor, Face, Dignity Culture of face ○ Stable hierarchies, agriculture based on cooperation ○ Need to maintain alliances, respect for hierarchy ○ E.g., many Eastern cultures, China, Japan Honor, Face, Dignity Culture of dignity ○ Market economies based on equal exchanges ○ Focus on internal strength, equality ○ E.g., many Western cultures, Canada, parts of the U.S.  03. Individualism and Collectivism  Individualism & Collectivism Reflect differing views of the relationship between the individual and society INDIVIDUALISM COLLECTIVISM o Self = Independent o Self = Interdependent o Personal needs & goals are priority o Ingroup needs & goals are priority o Relationships: many but casual o Relationships: fewer but close o Key values: achievement, o Key values: obedience, duty to the competition, freedom, autonomy, group, reciprocity, ingroup harmony individual rights o Select partners who will maximize o Select partners who are attractive, family integrity exciting Dominant Self-ConstruaLs Between Cultures INDEPENDENT INTERDEPENDENT Concern for internal needs Concern for relationships Self-focused emotions (e.g., anger, pride) Other-focused emotions (e.g., empathy, shame) Value high arousal positive emotions (e.g., excitement) Value low arousal positive emotions (e.g., serenity) International Differences Collectivism Individualism Chiao & Blizinsky (2009). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences ©2009 by The Royal Society Individualism vs. Collectivism Differing self-construals associated with: Differences in need for high self-esteem/self-regard Self-enhancement vs. Self-improvement and responses to failure or negative feedback Differences in absolute consistency of personality and emotional expression across situations Which pen do you prefer? A B C D E Culture and Preferences 80 70 Percentage making choice 60 50 White Anglophone 40 Americans 30 East Asians 20 10 0 Minority-colored pen Majority-colored pen Kim & Markus (1999) Culture and Preferences 100 Percentage containing each theme 80 60 Uniqueness themes 40 Fitting in themes 20 0 American ads Korean ads Kim & Markus (1999). Adding the Horizonal/Vertical Dimension  Critiques of Individualism/ Collectivism Constructs Most research only compares North America (USA, Canada) and East Asia (Japan, China, South Korea) ○ And Japan may not even be collectivistic! Individualism and collectivism are not necessarily mutually exclusive And they are rarely measured! More differences within cultures than between cultures  Differences Within Cultures Individualism/collectivism driven by agricultural needs (evoked culture) ○ E.g., farming requires more interdependence than herding ○ But, there are different kinds of farming Growing rice requires more cooperation (irrigation, labor) than growing wheat Talhelm et al. (2014). Science. Agriculture in China Which provinces should be more collectivistic? A. Those with more rice farming B. Those with more wheat farming Note: this applies to whole regions, not just farmers (transmitted culture) Differences Within Cultures Do markers of individualism/collectivism vary with agricultural history? Looked at province-level data More divorces, patents in ○ Divorce rates wheat (vs. rice) provinces ○ Invention (patents) Students in wheat (vs. rice) provinces showed more Assessed 1162 Han Chinese implicit individualism students Differences observed along ○ Implicit individualism (physical people in bordering size of self vs. social network) provinces Recap: Differences Within Cultures Research within cultures can provide stronger tests of mechanisms driving between culture differences ○ Better control over potential confounds ○ More homogenous samples “East vs. West” is overly simplistic  04. Personality Assessment across culture Main Questions 1. How much do personality trait mean levels vary between cultures? (Assuming we can use the same traits) 2. Are the personality traits that are valid in one culture (e.g., Big 5) also appropriate in other cultures? 3. Are there subcultures within the dominant cultures that meaningfully differ from the dominant culture? 1. How much do personality Trait mean levels vary between cultures? Low levels of Extraversion High levels of Extraversion  Variation within Cultures But why? Where I grew up Self-selection Cultural transmission Weather & mood Traits across culture & Acculturation Chinese people living in Canada rate themselves as more open, cheerful, and agreeable compared to Chinese in China or Hong Kong. ○ Differences increase the longer the person lives in Canada McCrae, et al 1998. Exaggeration of differences? Openness Agreeableness Positive Emotions McCrae, et al 1998. 2. Are the personality traits that are valid in one culture (e.g., Big 5) also appropriate in other cultures? Big 5 factor structure found in over 50 cultures But several variations have also been found. ○ Some studies indicate only 3 of the 5 (Conscientiousness, Extraversion, & Agreeableness) ○ Study of Arabic trait words suggested 7 traits Added Honesty and humility ○ Lexical study in China suggested 7 Extraversion, Conscientiousness, Harmfulness, Gentle temper, unselfishness, and dependency/fragility 3. Are there subcultures within the dominant cultures that meaningfully differ from the dominant culture? Many people belong to more than one culture ○ Especially here in Toronto! #1 multi-cultural city Cultural frame switching ○ Ex. Chinese Americans score higher on extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness when taking a personality test in English vs. Chinese Bicultural identity integration (BII) ○ Difficult to the extent to which the two cultures are perceived to be in conflict with one another Thank you!  (and its transformations) Lecture 12: The Inheritance of Personality Dr. William S. Ryan (Will)  Announcements Next class: Will show you class study results! Midterm grades will be posted October 17th Midterm viewing sessions (SS 514a, “ground floor”) Thurs Oct 17th 4:30-6 pm Friday Oct 18th 1:45-3:15 pm Thurs Oct 24th 1:00-2:30 pm  Lecture 01 Biological correlates of the Big 5 Overview 02 What is Behavioural Genetics? 03 The Heritability of Personality 04 Gene x Environment Interactions  01. Biological Correlates of the Big 5  DeYoung (2010) The Structure of Personality Stability Plasticity Agreeable- Conscientiousn Openness/Intel Neuroticism Extraversion ness ess lect Withdrawal Volatility Industrious Intellect Openness Orderliness ness Com- Assertive- Politeness Enthusiasm ness passion  DeYoung (2010) The Structure of Personality Serotonin Dopamine Cortisol & Stability Plasticity norepinephrine Endorphins (endogenous opiates) testosterone Agreeable- Conscientiousn Openness/Intel Neuroticism Extraversion ness ess lect Withdrawal Volatility Industrious Intellect Openness Orderliness ness Com- Assertive- Politeness Enthusiasm ness passion  Biological Bases of the Big 5 Stability Plasticity Emotional Agreeableness Conscientious- Extraversion Openness Stability ness Neurotransmitter Serotonin Serotonin Serotonin Dopamine Dopamine Hormone Cortisol & Testosterone Endorphins Norepinephrine Brain Structures Amygdala Insula Dorsolateral Nucleus Left pre-frontal prefrontal cortex accumbens cortex (don’t need to Hypothalamus know these!) Lateral Amygdala Posterior medial Insula orbitofrontal pre-frontal cortex cortex Substantia nigra Medial and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex Hippocampus What do we mean by correlates? If we know what brain mechanisms relate to different personality traits, does this mean the brain is the cause of personality? ○ Correlation does not equal causation ○ Caution: Biological determinism Thought Questions: Do you think if research methods improved sufficiently, scientists would be able to look at someone’s brain and know their personality? How would we know if they are correct?  02. Behavioural Genetics  What is Behavioural Genetics? Field of research that examines the way inherited biological material—genes—can influence broad patterns of behavior (i.e., Personality Traits) “Trait Genetics” ○ Despite the name, concerned with modeling both genetic AND environmental influences Asks the question “Where do individual differences in personality traits come from?” ○ How much is genes how much is environment?  Behavioural Genetics’ Rotten Roots Surprise, it’s eugenics again! Linking desirable and undesirable traits to biology Modern researchers seek to distance themselves from these origins (people on the internet, not so much)  03. Heritability of Personality  Sources of Variance in Behavior or Personality Variance = h2 + c2 + e2 (individual differences) Variance h2 = heritability (genetics) c2 = shared environment h2 e2 = non-shared environment c2 e2 *Note the specific size of each slice of the pie will vary for each trait we estimate. This is just a visualization of a hypothetical trait  Variance = h2 + c2 + e2 What is Heritability? (h2) ○ Heritability = the contribution of genetics to the variation of a trait observed in a population The heritability coefficient/quotient/statistic is the proportion of variance in a phenotype (the observable trait) that can be accounted for by variation in the genotype (the genetic structure) ○ How do we estimate this? Compare similarity in personality between people who are and are not related and people who are related to different degrees E.g., Monozygotic (MZ) versus dizygotic (DZ) twins  *Note: You will NOT be asked to calculate this Estimating Heritability yourself, just understand the general idea Remember r ? (it’s a correlation!) Heritability = (rmz- rdz) x 2 Variance = h2 + c 2 + e2 Cautions about Heritability (h2) Heritability = the contribution of genetics to the variation of a trait observed in a population ○ The heritability for having a heart is zero (because we all have one, no variance) ○ Population estimates do not apply to individuals In the USA, height is very heritable, 90% of the variation can be attributed to genetic differences. But, if you’re a 6 foot tall American, it doesn’t mean that 5.4 feet of your height is produced by your genes and the remaining 0.6 feet is produced by the environment!  Cautions about Heritability (h2) Cannot be assessed without taking the environment into account! ○ In a country with greater social disparities in nutrition, height would be less heritable → greater role for the environment. Is specific to the time and population in which it was studied; it does not represent a universal truth about human development May fluctuate across the lifespan ○ *Will discuss more in gene-environment interactions later in lecture  2 Variance = h2 + c + e2 Shared Environment (c2 ) Captures the effects of environmental factors that make related (raised together) individuals more similar to each other ○ The extent to which family members are similar after taking into account the shared genes between them DOES NOT speak to any one specific environmental factors (e.g., the impact of sharing parents) Misleading name, has led to some misunderstandings Variance = h2 + c2 + e2 Non-Shared Environment (e2) Captures the effects of environmental factors that make related (raised together) individuals dissimilar to each other Also captures random measurement error ○ this error is random by definition, so it makes family members look different Sources of Variance in Behavior or Personality Effects of Effects of genetic environmental factors factors that make (and random error) related individuals that make related Variance Variance = h2 + c2 + e2 individuals dissimilar similar (individual differences) h2 = heritability c2 = shared environment h2 e2 = non-shared environment c2 e2 Effects of environmental factors that make genetically related individuals MORE similar Genes and Personality MZ Twin studies neat, but often limited by small sample Johnson, Vernon, and Feiler (2008) conducted a meta-analysis (study of studies) of research on the heritability of the Big 5. ○ Included : 145 studies 85,640 MZ twin pairs 106,644 DZ twin pairs 46,215 non-twin family pairs Age range from 4 months to 96 years  Meta Analytic Results h c e Extraversion.54.05.50 Agreeableness.49.18.57 Conscientiousness.47.12.49 Neuroticism.43.06.57 Openness.48.14.48 h = heritability c = shared environment e = non-shared environment  What Heritability Tells You Genes matter ○ Not all personality comes from experience Insight into the effects of the environment on personality development The Environment and Personality Most environmental influences on personality appear to be of the non- shared variety Shared family environment does not seem to matter very much (r =.05 to.18)? What does this mean? ○ Many have erroneously interpreted this finding as meaning that the home environment, parenting, etc. have no bearing on personality development  The Environment and Personality Conclusions regarding small impact of c mostly based on adults and S- data ○ c more prominent in childhood ○ c larger when I-data is collected Studies include primarily functional families restricting the range of variance we are estimating What is c anyway? ○ The extent to which the shared environment makes related individuals more similar – that is it! ○ Objective versus effective environment Objective vs. Effective environment Objective environment = refers to the actual, measurable environmental conditions that individuals experience ○ e.g., same 2 parents, same school attended, same SES Effective environment = how the objective environment actually affects an individual’s behavior or traits An environmental factor can be objectively shared, but effectively non-shared ○ e.g. divorce (Hetherington & Clingempeel, 1992) Also, some things are not even as objectively shared as they appear ○ Sibling reports of parental behaviors often do not correlate all that highly ○ Evidence that mothers even treat MZ twins differently (Caspi et al., 2004)  What Heritability Can’t Tell You Nature versus nurture ○ Traits with little variation will have heritability close to zero ○ You can’t use heritability to determine what percent of a trait is determined by genetics and by the environment- it’s an estimate explaining the variability in that trait in the population how/which genes affect personality https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/12/magazine/the-mixed-up-brothers-of- bogota.html#:~:text=According%20to%20Facebook%2C%20they%20were,a%20baby%20from%20an other%20pair.  Potential Problems with Twin Studies Selection bias: ○ Twins that are more similar are more likely to be reunited ○ Twins self-select into these studies ○ Media more likely to cover twins that are more similar ○ Availability heuristics and the selection of anecdotes  Potential Problems with Twin Studies How similar/different are the environments? ○ Example of the “Jim Twins” Are genes exactly the same? ○ Impact of time in utero ○ Not exactly identical at time of embryo split ○ Structural differences in the womb (thicker umbilical cord, closeness to the parent’s heart, etc.) ○ Epigenetics Genetic influences may be multiplicative! ○ Higher heritability estimates in twin studies than sibling and cousin studies  Molecular Genetics Are differences in traits correlated with differences in a particular gene? ○ DRD4 affects dopamine receptors ○ 5-HTT affects serotonin But: Many genes are involved in complex traits! Genome-Wide Association Studies and Epigenetics GWA studies ○ Progress has been slow, but steady! Have to make millions of statistical comparisons! ○ Finding associations between pattern of genes and agreeableness ○ The ultimate picture will be complicated. Genome-Wide Association Studies and Epigenetics Epigenetics: nongenetic influences on a gene’s expression (stress, nutrition); experience, especially early in life, can influence how or whether a gene is expressed during development. Example: growing up in a cold climate reduced sweat gland production  04. Gene-Environment Interactions  Genes and the Environment Genetic and environmental forces do not operate in isolation of each other Instead, they work together to bring about developmental outcomes  Gene-Environment Interactions People experience certain environments because of their genetic makeup Three varieties: ○ passive – parents provide both genes AND a rearing environment ○ evocative –genetic predispositions shape environment and responses from others ○ active –seeking out environments in line with genetic predisposition  Gene-Environment Interactions Genes are not causal in and of themselves There must be an environment in order for there to be behavior Environments can affect heritabilities ○ E.g., social inequality reduces heritability estimate, increases impact of environment Gene-Environment Interactions Example: depression and the “diathesis- 1 stress” model (Gheyara et al., 2011) 0.9 ○ looked at how the heritability of 0.8 depression changes depending on how 0.7 many close friends and family 0.6 H members have died in the lives of 10- 0.5 20 year olds C 0.4 ○ The environment “activates genes of 0.3 E risk” 0.2 0.1 0 0 Deaths 1 Death >2 Deaths Gene-Environment Interactions Not much GxE work on personality traits Some suggests that negative emotionality/neuroticism is more heritable in less adverse environments 0.8 ○ “bio-ecological model” 0.6 H 0.4 C 0.2 E 0 Low SES Mid SES High SES The Future of Behavioral Genetics Focus on how genes and the environment interact Genes have important influences on personality but are not predestination. Understanding genetic predispositions could possibly be used to help people find environments likely to lead to good outcomes.  Coming up! Next class: Will show you class study results! Midterm grades will be posted October 17th Midterm viewing sessions (SS 514a, “ground floor”) Thurs Oct 17th 4:30-6 pm Friday Oct 18th 1:45-3:15 pm Thurs Oct 24th 1:00-2:30 pm Thank you!  (and its transformations) Lecture 10: Personality Neuroscience Dr. William S. Ryan (Will)  Announcements No class or office hours on Thursday! Listen to podcast. Pre-registration due before class Tuesday October 15th Midterm grades will be posted October 17th Midterm viewing sessions (SS 514a, “ground floor”) ○ Thurs Oct 17th 4:30-6 pm ○ Friday Oct 18th 1:45-3:15 pm ○ Thurs Oct 24th 1:00-2:30 pm 01 (Intentional) Personality Change (wrap up) Lecture 02 What is personality Neuroscience? Overview 03 Early Theories 04 Key Neurotransmitters & Hormones 05 Biological Correlates of the Big 5  01. (Intentional) Personality Change (wrap up)  Life Experiences Exercise, starting university or a job, beginning a serious relationship, travel, trying drugs, other intentional choices The text also talks about non-intentional experiences here too Life Experiences- Adversity & Reactions to Stress  Obstacles t0 personality Change Not seeing a reason for change Takes effort! Blaming negative experiences and failures on external forces rather than their own personality People like consistency and predictability. Overcoming Obstacles t0 personality Change Principles of Personality Change/Stability Cumulative Personality traits increase in rank-order consistency as people get older Continuity People become better equipped to deal with the demands of Maturity life as they acquire experience and skills Plasticity Personality can change at any time (but may not be easy) Taking on roles consistent with one’s personality may explain Role Continuity stability Principles of Personality Change/Stability Identity People seed to develop a stable sense of who they are and then stive to act Development consistently with that Social Changing social roles at different stages of Investment life drive personality change Person-environment transactions can Corresponsive cause personality traits to remain consistent or can magnify existing traits Summary: “Personality is characterized by stability over the life span, and also by significant change” -Funder, pg. 257  02. Personality Neuroscience  What is personality Neuroscience? Personality neuroscience is the study of persistent psychological individual differences (typically in the general population) using neuroscientific methods. The key presumption of personality neuroscience is that a person cannot be understood without understanding their brain (DeYoung, 2010)  From Traits to Biology Interested in mapping traits onto brain structure and function Finding biological correlates of personality is not causal itself, but is an essential step in linking personality to genetics and environmental influences Answers getting more complex as our methods improve and get more complex  03. Early Theories Early Theories of Brain Structure: Phrenology Eysenck’s Big 3 Traits Eysenck: Big Three Traits Theory based approach ○ Reviewed existing personality theories and identified common elements Posited a neurobiological basis of traits Used factor analysis to confirm this structure of traits. Ultimately emerged with three basic traits, but started with two review Eysenck’s P-E-N Model Psychoticism (vs. superego control)- unconstrained? ○ Aggression, creativity, impulsivity Added this third trait later ○ Psychological detachment from others ○ Enjoy danger, Disregard social conventions Extraversion (vs. introversion) ○ Outgoing; Like being around people; Enjoy excitement Neuroticism (vs. emotional stability) ○ Greater reactions to stress; Touchy, restless, moody, anxious review Ascending Reticular Activating System (ARAS) Area that controls how much nervous system stimulation enters the brain ○ Keeps you awake (or not) in class ○ Arousal activity and activation of brain ○ Lets in or filters out information The center of Eysenck’s theory of introversion – extraversion Eysenck’s Arousal Hypothesis Underlying idea: people seek optimal level of arousal The ARAS of introverts is open and lets in a lot of sensory information ○ Introverts: higher resting levels of arousal because ARAS lets in too much stimulation thus, engage in behaviors to minimize or avoid stimulation The ARAS of extraverts is more closed and lets in less sensory information ○ Extraverts: lower resting levels of arousal because ARAS lets in too little stimulation thus, engage in behaviors to increase stimulation Eysenck’s Theory Optimal 100 90 Stimulation Arousal Level seeking 80 70 Stimulation 60 seeking 50 40 Brain arousal 30 20 Brain 10 arousal 0 Introverts Extroverts Revision to Eysenck’s original theory Introverts and extraverts do not differ in baseline (resting) levels of arousal ○ Same level of arousal in quiet environment But, introverts have more arousability than extraverts ○ Introverts respond to stimulation more quickly and strongly ○ Overwhelmed more easily by stimulation The ARAS alone is not responsible for this difference Evidence for (Revision of) Eysenck’s Theory Introverts get used to sensory stimuli (like unusual sounds) slower than extroverts Explanation: Introverts more sensitive to new auditory stimuli When lemon juice is dripped onto the tongue… ○ introverts salivate more than extroverts. Explanation: Introverts experience the sour taste more, thus respond more strongly to it When given caffeine and asked to complete difficult tasks… ○ Introverts had stronger brain activity than extroverts Explanation: introverts more sensitive to the caffeine thus are more affected by it BiS/BAS Theory developed by Jeremy Gray in the 1970s & 80s building on and revising Eysenck's work Also called reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) Proposed two brain systems that explain individual differences in emotional response, motivation, and behavior (aka personality!) ○ BIS (Behavioural Inhibition System) - sensitivity to punishment, threat, movel stimuli ○ BAS (Behavioural Activation System)- sensitivity to rewards A model of approach and avoidance  BiS/BAS Sensitivity to rewards (BAS) links to extraversion Sensitivity to punishment (Dopamine) (Serotonin) (BIS) with neuroticism Extraversion Neuroticism  04. Key hormones & Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters and Personality Chemical messengers; communication between neurons Levels vary across situations and people Dopamine “Motivation to action” Reward sensitivity, control of body movements Pleasure, sociability, activity level, novelty-seeking Low levels can lead to alcoholism, drug abuse, gambling, etc. (Impulsivity) Very low levels can lead to symptoms of Parkinson’s disease Big 5 Correlates: Extraversion & Openness Neurotransmitters and Personality Serotonin Important for inhibiting emotional impulses Low levels associated with rejection sensitivity, chronic anxiety Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs; Prozac) thought to improve mood by increasing available serotonin Psilocybin and MDMA act similarly to serotonin Recent evidence suggesting long covid is associated with reduced serotonin levels and increased anxiety! More serotonin sensitivity and function related to less neuroticism, more conscientiousness, more agreeableness Neurotransmitters, Hormones, and Personality Hormones are also chemical messengers Produced in one location and act in another (unlike neurotransmitters which are produced and act in the brain) Can be measured in many ways (saliva, blood, urine, hair) Epinephrine & Norepinephrine (aka adrenaline and noradrenaline)* ○ Reactivity to stress (“adrenaline rush”) ○ Fight-or-flight response ○ Elevated among highly anxious individuals ○ Higher on average among those high in neuroticism *These are hormones AND neurotransmitters Hormones and Personality Cortisol Released in response to physical or psychological stress Prepares body for sustained action Beneficial in short durations, but not chronically Higher resting levels and greater reactivity associated with neuroticism Low levels can also be problematic (too much risk-taking, psychopathy) Both genetics and early life history are related to cortisol levels  05. Biological Correlates of the Big 5  DeYoung (2010) The Structure of Personality Stability Plasticity Agreeable- Conscientiousn Openness/Intel Neuroticism Extraversion ness ess lect Withdrawal Volatility Industrious Intellect Openness Orderliness ness Com- Assertive- Politeness Enthusiasm ness passion  DeYoung (2010) The Structure of Personality Serotonin Dopamine Cortisol & Stability Plasticity norepinephrine Endorphins (endogenous opiates) testosterone Agreeable- Conscientiousn Openness/Intel Neuroticism Extraversion ness ess lect Withdrawal Volatility Industrious Intellect Openness Orderliness ness Com- Assertive- Politeness Enthusiasm ness passion  Biological Bases of the Big 5 Stability Plasticity Emotional Agreeableness Conscientious- Extraversion Openness Stability ness Neurotransmitter Serotonin Serotonin Serotonin Dopamine Dopamine Hormone Cortisol & Testosterone Endorphins Norepinephrine Brain Structures Amygdala Insula Dorsolateral Nucleus Left pre-frontal prefrontal cortex accumbens cortex (don’t need to Hypothalamus know these!) Lateral Amygdala Posterior medial Insula orbitofrontal pre-frontal cortex cortex Substantia nigra Medial and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex Hippocampus What do we mean by correlates? If we know what brain mechanisms relate to different personality traits, does this mean the brain is the cause of personality? ○ Correlation does not equal causation ○ Caution: Biological determinism Thought Questions: Do you think if research methods improved sufficiently, scientists would be able to look at someone’s brain and know their personality? How would we know if they are correct? Thank you!  We’re going to try it! (and its transformations) Code: 9399 6990 Lecture 9: Personality Development & Change Dr. William S. Ryan (Will)  Lecture 01 Personality Stability Overview 02 Personality Development 03 (Intentional) Personality Change  01. Personality Stability  Evidence for stability Rank-order consistency over years (as well as situations) r =.60–.90 for 10-year span Childhood personality predicts (on average) adult behavior and life outcomes. e.g., openness measured 10 years apart in 20 individuals  Causes of stability: Temperament Temperament broadly refers to consistent individual differences in behavior that are biologically based ○ used to describe the early appearance of these consistencies in babies. ○ Basic aspects: positive emotionality, negative emotionality, effortful control  Causes of stability: Temperament Heterotypic continuity- The effects of fundamental temperamental tendencies change with age, but temperament and personality stay the same; behaviors associated with traits change.  Causes of stability (consistent) Physical and environmental factors Birth order? ○ Based on idea that parents treat the first child differently from other children, which has little/mixed research support Early experiences: adverse and positive experience Causes of stability  Cumulative Continuity principle o Personality ratings by the self and others show greater alignment in young adulthood compared to adolescence o Traits are relatively stable across the lifespan and become more consistent with age o Will see this in relative/rank-order consistency increasing. Rank-Order (Relative) Consistency Roberts & DelVecchio (2000) 152 longitudinal studies examining rank-order consistency of personality traits and temperaments 50,207 participants Participants ranged in age from 6 weeks old to 73 years Studies ranged in length from 1 to 53 years Rank-Order Consistency Across the Life Course Adjusted for Time Interval 1 Rank-order consistency 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0-3 3 to 5 5 to 10 to 18-21 22-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-73 10 18 Age  Cumulative Continuity principle o BUT WHY? o (on average) One’s environment becomes more stable with age. o Psychological maturity: behavioral consistency (traits) that help one fulfill adult roles o Suggests we become more stable and consistent, but ALSO that personality development/change does occur!  02. Personality Development  Evidence for Development Personality Development- change in the mean level of a personality trait over time Cross-sectional vs. longitudinal studies Cross-Sectional Evidence of Personality Development Cross-Sectional Evidence of Personality Development  Cohort Effects Are these differences actually due to age, or are they generational? Or both? People born at different times grow up in different social environments ○ Growing up during the “great depression” ○ E.g. “will COVID babies have different personalities?” Cohort effects- The potential impact of this on cross-sectional data  Longitudinal Evidence of Personality Development Longitudinal studies ○ Similar findings to cross-sectional studies ○ People become more socially dominant, agreeable, conscientious, emotionally stable, and increase in honesty/humility Consistent with the maturity principle- that traits needed to fill adult roles increase with age. o Ex: Greater conscientiousness and emotional stability following secure and satisfying relationship or job o Relationships and jobs less likely to change with age (but when they do, we see change! Personality changes with life changes “…the universal tasks of social living in young adulthood, such as finding a marital partner, starting a family, and establishing one’s career, appear to be candidate experiences through which people experience increases in such traits such as conscientiousness and emotional stability. As all dominant cultures support if not promote these activities, they may be the catalysts for the widespread pattern of personality trait development found in adulthood and across cultures.” -Roberts 2006, p. 18  Causes of Personality development Changes in social roles and responsibilities ○ Erikson’s theory of development* Physical development & Hormone-level changes* Increases in intellectual and linguistic abilities Development of a narrative identity* Changes in goals* *These will be covered in later lectures  03. (Intentional) Personality Change Desire for change The majority of people (97-97%) want to change some aspect of their personality. Many are actively working on it! Neuroticism is the most reported Big 5 trait people want to change People want to change in socially desirable direction ○ E.g., less neurotic, more agreeable, more extraverted Desire to change is not associated with age Methods of intentional change Psychotherapy General Interventions Targeted interventions Life experiences* *These may not always be “intentional” Psychotherapy Can produce long-term behavior change Often combined with psychiatric drugs Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)- General vs. Targeted interventions General interventions: usually aimed at important outcomes (rather than personality specifically) ○ Evidence of success for intensive programs for high-risk preschool students Targeted interventions: address specific personality traits ○ Seek to change thoughts, feelings, and behaviors related to particular traits Targeted interventions Openness & “Cultural Investments” Anxiety management programs & neuroticism Mindfulness to enhance self-control and compassion  Targeted intervention Examples Sociogenomic trait intervention model (or “duo-lingo model” discussed in podcast) o Step 1: Identify what the person wants to change o Step 2: Do things outside of comfort zone until they become habits and automatic. Is changing behaviour the same as changing personality?  Life Experiences Exercise, starting university or a job, beginning a serious relationship, travel, trying drugs, other intentional choices The text also talks about non-intentional experiences here too Life Experiences- Adversity & Reactions to Stress  Obstacles t0 personality Change Not seeing a reason for change Takes effort! Blaming negative experiences and failures on external forces rather than their own personality People like consistency and predictability. Overcoming Obstacles t0 personality Change Principles of Personality Change/Stability Cumulative Personality traits increase in rank-order consistency as people get older Continuity People become better equipped to deal with the demands of Maturity life as they acquire experience and skills Plasticity Personality can change at any time (but may not be easy) Taking on roles consistent with one’s personality may explain Role Continuity stability Principles of Personality Change/Stability Identity People seed to develop a stable sense of who they are and then stive to act Development consistently with that Social Changing social roles at different stages of Investment life drive personality change Person-environment transactions can Corresponsive cause personality traits to remain consistent or can magnify existing traits Summary: “Personality is characterized by stability over the life span, and also by significant change” -Funder  Coming up! No Class or Office Hours: Thursday October 10th (just listen to assigned podcast) Upcoming assignments: Pre-registration due Tuesday October 15th before class Thank you!