Social Psychology Finals Topics PDF

Social Psychology Topic for Finals ❖ GROUP COHESION CONFORMITY What is a Group? ~ a social unit that consists of two or more persons and that it has all of the following attributes. Membership ~ To be a member, a person must think of himself...

Social Psychology Topic for Finals ❖ GROUP COHESION CONFORMITY What is a Group? ~ a social unit that consists of two or more persons and that it has all of the following attributes. Membership ~ To be a member, a person must think of himself or herself as belonging to the group and must also be recognized by other members as belonging to the group. ( Lickel, 2000) Interaction among Members ~ Group members are interdependent with respect to goal attainment. Progress by one member toward his\her objectives makes it likely that another member will also reach his\her objectives. Shared Norms ~ Group members hold a set of expectations (that is norms or rules) that place limits on member’s behavior and guide action. ~ Groups are not collections of individuals, rather they are organized systems in which relations among individuals are structured and patterned. Group Cohesion ~ The extent to which members of a group desire to remain in that group and resists leaving it. ~ Highly cohesive group will in general maintain a firm hold over its member’s time, energy, loyalty and commitment. ~ Because members of a cohesive group desire to belong, the interaction among them will typically have a positive , upbeat character and reflect a “we” feeling. The Nature of Group Cohesion ~ People may have a very different motives for joining and staying in groups. Belong to a group because they like the tasks they perform in the group. They enjoy interacting with the members. The group reflects their own values.  The group helps them get something they want. ~ These differing motives lead to different levels and kinds of cohesion among members. (Longman, 1995 and Cooper, 1994) The Nature of Cohesion Social Cohesion – If its members stay in the group primarily because they like one another as persons and desire to interact with one another. Other things being equal, social cohesion will be greater when group members are similar. Task Cohesion- its members remain together primarily because they are heavily involved with the group’s task. Task cohesion will be greater if members find the group’s task intrinsically valuable, interesting and challenging. Consequences of Group Cohesion ~ What difference does it make whether a group is highly cohesive or not? First, cohesion affects the amount of interaction among group members. Given the opportunity, members of highly cohesive groups communicate more with one another than do members of less cohesive groups. Interaction among members in highly cohesive groups is usually friendlier, more cooperative, and entails, more attempts to reach agreements and to improve coordination. Second. Members of high-cohesion groups also have more influence on one another than members of low-cohesion groups. Conform more to the expectations of their fellow members than do members of less cohesive groups. Care about belonging and want their group to perform well, so they use their influence to bring about coordination and consensus in the group. Group Structure and Goals ~ Group goal the outcome viewed by group members as desirable and important to attain. Goals differ in terms of specificity, ranging from general statements about what the group does and why it exists to more specific targets and tasks that the group members attempt to achieve along the way to its larger goals.  ~ Term Group Isomorphism refers to a state where group goals and individual goals are similar in the sense that actions leading to group goals also lead to the attainment of individual goals. ~ High isomorphism benefits the group because members are also motivated to pursue group goals and to contribute resources and effort to the group. Roles in Group ~ As groups pursue their goals, the members of the group take on different roles. the group engages in a division of labor in which members are assigned different tasks. ~ A role is a set of functions that a member performs for the group. ~ A role is a cluster of rules or expectations indicating the set of duties to be performed by a member occupying a given position within a group. ~ Group members hold role expectations regarding one another’s performance, and they feel justified in making demands on one another. Conformity to Group Norms Group Norms o Norm – a rule or standard that specifies how group members are expected to behave under given circumstances. Most groups develop a variety of norms to regulate the activities of their members. Functions of Norms - Norms serve a number of functions for groups. o Foster coordination among members in pursuit of group goals. norms usually reflect a group’s fundamental value system, they prescribe behaviors that foster the attainment of important goals. o Provide a cognitive frame of references through which group members interpret and judge their environment. Provide a basis for distinguishing good from bad, important from unimportant, tenable from untenable. They are especially useful in novel ambiguous situations, where they serve as pointers on how to behave. o Define and enhance the common identity of group members. Especially true when group norms require members to behave differently from persons outside the group.  Conformity ~ When an individual adhere to group norms and standards, it is called conformity. Group members often change their behavior expressly so that it will conform to group norms. The Asch Conformity Paradigm ~ The influence exercised by the group’s majority over the behavior of individual members. Social psychologists use the term majority influence to refer to the processes by which a group’s majority pressures an individual members to conform or to adopt a specific position on some issue. ~ Majority influence is important, for it gives a group integrity and continuity over time. ~ Asch (1951-1957) illustrated classical experiments using laboratory setting where situation was created in which an individual was confronted by a majority that agreed unanimously on a factual matter but was obviously error. Showed that within limits, group can pressure their members to change their judgments and conform with the majority’s position even when that position is obviously incorrect. ~ The interviews indicated that conformity by the participants was of a particular type. In fair extent, it involved public compliance without private acceptance. Why Conform? Normative Influence – the fact that individual members are dependent on the majority cognitively, socially and for utilitarian reasons as well. ~ Occurs when a member conforms to expectations held by others in order to receive social rewards or avoid punishments that are contingent on meeting these expectations. ~ Being liked and accepted by other members is one important reward in normative influence. Informational Influence - occurs especially when members need to reduce uncertainty –as in situations that involve ambiguity or that entail an absence of objective standards to guide judgments. ~ Occurs when a group member accepts information from others as valid evidence about reality.  Increasing Conformity Size of the Majority - If the majority is unanimous – that is, if all the members of the majority are united in their position – then the size of the majority will have an impact on the behavior of the participant. Size of the majority increases, the amount of conformity by the participants increases. Unanimity - Basic lack of unanimity among majority members has a liberating effect on the behavior by participants. A participant will less likely to conform if a member breaks away from the majority. Attraction to the Group - Members who are highly attracted to a group will conform more to group norms than to members who are less attracted to it. One explanation for this is that when individuals are attracted to a group they also wish to be accepted personally by its members. Commitment to Future Interaction - Members are more likely to conform to group norms when they anticipate that their relationship with the group will be permanent or enduring, so opposed to short-term. Competence - An individual member’s level of expertise relative to that of other members. Persons, who in fact, are not competent will still resist conformity pressure if they believe that they have more skills than the other members. Those who believe themselves competent rely less on the judgment of others. Minority Influence in Groups ~ A dissenting minority is a coalition of group members who hold a viewpoint different from the majority on some important issue (s) and who press for the adoption of their position by the group. ~ If the members of a dissenting minority are able to persuade or induce majority members to accept their viewpoint, they are said to exercise minority influence. ❖ Group Structure and Performance Group Structure ~ Group in society exist for many different purposes. No matter how purposeful a group is, it exhibits some kind of structure that is determined in part by its goals. ~ The structure of the group can define leaders, set a hierarchy, determine how regards are distributed, and have a major impact on whether the group achieves its goals. ~ Group productivity refers to a group’s output gauged relative to something else, such as the level of resources used by the group or the group’s targeted objective. ~ Task group is considered highly effective if its output meets or exceeds its goal or targeted objective. Group Leadership ~ Many groups within which we interact are informal groups, which are not very structured or regulated. Role definition – who is supposed to do what? ~ Formal groups - have much more structured interactions, explicit role definitions and authority, and tasks that are well-specified. Frequently exist within larger organizations or bureaucracies, and they often endure for extended periods, even years. ~ Formally regulated by its leadership – that is leaders have some degree of authority over the behavior of its members (Pesconsolido, 2001) even when it formally defined, some members of the group may informally challenge the leaders. Endorsement of Formal Leaders Role systems in formal groups are structured in various ways. We often see formal groups organized in a hierarchy of pyramid structure ~ Leadership functions – planning organizing, and controlling the activities of group members – are essential if a group is to achieve its goal. Groups usually maintain a pyramid structure through a tacit exchange between high-status members, who fulfill leadership functions, and the other group members, who accept direction from high-status members. Support for a formal leader can come from two sources within a group. When it comes from members having still higher status in the groups, it is usually referred to as authorization.  When it comes from members having equal or lower status, it is termed endorsement. We can view endorsement as an attitude held by a lower-status member indicating the extent to which he or she supports the group’s formal leader. Thus, the extent to which a group achieve its goals is one factor affecting endorsement. When a group fails initially, members may actually increase their endorsement and rally around the leaders in hopes of improving the situation. Activities of Leaders Another determinant of endorsement is the level of consideration a formal leader shows toward other members. The primary purpose, of course, is to guide the group toward its goals. Leadership is the process whereby one group member (the leader) influences and coordinates the behavior of the group members in pursuit of group goals. In return for support from the others, a leader provides guidance, specialized skills, and environmental contacts that help the group attain its goals. Functions include planning, organizing, and controlling the activity of group members. What are the specific activities of leaders in groups? Leaders usually do some or all of the following: o Formulate a clear conception of the group’s goals, and communicate this conception to group members; o Develop specific strategies for the attainment of group goals; o Specify role assignments and establish standards of productivity for members; o Facilitate communication among members; o Recruit new members and train members in crucial skills; o Interact with members personally to maintain good relations; o Provide persuasion, rewards, and punishments to encourage members; o Monitor the group’s progress and take corrective steps if necessary; o Resolve conflicts between members o Serve as a representative of the group to outside agencies and organizations. Productivity and Performance ~ When confronted with the tasks of everyday life, the individuals can take them on by themselves or can band together in groups in an attempt to be productive. ~ When tasks can be divided up so that some individuals can specialize the increased level of efficiency makes the group more than the sum of its parts.  ~ But having too many individuals involved can also hinder performance - when group members get in our or another’s way and find coordinating their activities more trouble than it is worth. The Presence of Others The first psychological experiment published examined the phenomenon of social facilitation. Norman Triplett (1898) observed that in cycling races when cyclists raced head to head on the same track, they were likely to produce faster times than when they raced alone on the track against the clock. Triplett believed that this was due to the social facilitation effect, in which the mere presence of another competitor caused the individual to perform better. He systematizes a test of social facilitation in a laboratory setting by having subjects reel in the fishing line as quickly as they could. It occurs not just when people are doing the same task, but also just when others are observing as passive bystanders. The effect is not completely ubiquitous. Some experiments actually found the opposite effect. In certain conditions: The presence of others actually damages the performance of individuals on certain tasks. The presence of others emotionally and cognitively arouses the subjects and they focus more on their performance and can get the job done more easily, more rapidly, and with higher quality. An audience is bad for beginners but good for a well-practiced professional. Group Size - Large groups generally have the advantages of greater resources (such as information and skills) than small ones which may lead to more productivity. On the other hand, large groups may have more difficulty establishing adequate coordination among their members. Additive Task - French agricultural engineer named Ringelmann (1913) investigated the effect of group size on tasks where individual group members' contributions are summed to produce the total group output. The result showed that although a group of eight men could pull harder than a smaller group or a single individual, the average contribution of members declined as the group size increased. o Motivation loss - refers to a circumstance where group members reduce their effort and slack off, thereby producing less than they otherwise would. o Social loafing – a form of motivation loss that occurs when there is no clear way to know how much an individual member is contributing to a group product. o Involving task – one that is interesting, meaningful, and challenging, they are less likely to loaf than when they are working on an uninvolving task.  Disjunctive and Conjunctive Tasks Disjunctive tasks - are those in which the group’s output depends solely on its strongest or most able member. In other words, only the best performance is considered when judging the output of the group. Conjunctive tasks - are those in which the group’s productivity depends on its weakest member. Theory proposed by Steiner (1972), the impact of the group size is different on disjunctive and conjunctive tasks. If a task is disjunctive, productivity will increase with group size, but if a task is conjunctive, increasing group size will decrease productivity. Group Goals ~ The goals established by a group have an important impact on the level of productivity of the group members. ~ If a group establishes explicit, demanding objectives with respect to the group’s performance, and if the group members are highly committed to those objectives, the group will perform at a higher level (O’Leary KellyStuebing and Ekeberg, 1988). This phenomenon is often referred to as group goal effect on productivity. Why does establishing goals lead to higher productivity? o First, setting a goal tends to strengthen members' work efforts. o Second, setting an explicit goal often makes a need for planning clear for the group. o Third, the presence of an explicit and demanding often leads to a higher level of cooperation as reflected in a high level of morale-building communication among members. o Finally, establishing an explicit goal often reduces members’ concern for aspects of performance unrelated to goals. Reward Distribution and Equity ~ When members contribute to the attainment of goals, they typically receive rewards such as money and approval. Principles Used in Reward Distribution o Distributive justice principle – that group members can use to judge the fairness of the distribution of rewards. Three most commonly used are the equality principle, the equity principle, and the relative needs principle.  ▪ Equality principle - they distribute rewards equally among members, regardless of members' contributions. ▪ Equity principle - they distribute rewards in proportion to members’ contributions. ▪ Relative needs principle, they distribute rewards according to members' potential needs, regardless of contributions. Principles of Reward Distribution ~ Equality principle often prevails in situations where members are concerned with solidarity and wish to avoid conflict. Friends are more likely to follow the equality norm than strangers. Task Interdependence ~ Task interdependence exists when the task demands a high level of communication, coordination, and mutual performance, monitoring among members for successful completion. Brainstorming ~ It was suggested that most of the truly important decisions and judgments are made by groups, not by individuals. Alex Osborn (1963) proposed that groups are better at generating creative new ideas than individuals working alone. Brainstorming requires that a group follow set procedures when generating new ideas and should do the following: 1. Express new ideas that come to mind, no matter how wild or unrealistic. In fact the wilder the idea, the better. 2. Withhold criticism and defer judgment on all ideas until later. Let ideas flow freely without pre-censoring them. 3. Generate as many ideas as possible – the more the better. This improves the odds of getting some good ones. 4. Try to hold on to ideas suggested by others – generate new ideas by combining, modifying, or extending the ideas of others.  Group Decision ~ Beyond the matter of idea generation or brainstorming, another important group process is decision-making. Typically, when a group makes a decision, its members consider the merits of several mutually exclusive options and then select one in preference to the others. ~ To make a decision effectively, group members need to define a set of possible options, gather all the relevant information about these options, share this information among themselves, carefully assess all the potential consequences of each option under consideration, and then calculate the overall value of each option. Group Think ~ Groupthink refers to a faulty mode of thinking by group members in which their desire to realistically evaluate alternative courses of action is overwhelmed by pressures of unanimity within the group. ❖ DEVIANT BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL REACTION The Violation of Norms ~ Shoplifting, crime, cheating, substance abuse, fraud, corruption, delinquent behavior, harassment, and behavior considered symptomatic of mental illness are considered behavior that violates the norms that apply in a given situation and are referred to as deviant behaviors. ~ Deviance is a social construction; whether a behavior is deviant or not depends on the norms or expectations for behavior in the situation in which it occurs. Deviant Behavior ~ In any situation, our behavior is governed by norms derived from several sources. ~ There are purely “local” and group norms. Thus, roommates and families develop norms about what personal topics can and cannot be discussed. ~ Subcultural norms that apply to a large number of persons who share some characteristics. ~ Societal norms, such as those requiring certain types of dress or those limiting sexual activity to certain relationships and situations. ~ Violations of societal norms may subject a person to action by formal agencies of control such as the police and courts. Anomie Theory Anomie Theory of deviance suggests that deviance arises when people striving to achieve culturally valued goals, such as wealth, find that they do not have any legitimate way to attain these goals. In every society there are also norms that define acceptable means of striving for goals, called legitimate means. Legitimate means for attaining wealth include education, working hard at a job to earn money, etc. Anomie A person who strives to attain a legitimate goal but is denied access to legitimate means will experience anomie–a state that reduces commitment to norms or the pursuit of goals.  There are four ways a person may respond to anomie; o First, an individual may reject the goals and give up trying to achieve success, but continue to conform to social norms. This adaptation is termed ritualism. o Second, the individual might reject both the goals and the means, withdrawing from active participation in society by retreatism. This may take the form of drinking, drug use, withdrawal into mental illness, etc. o Third, one might remain committed to the goals but turn to disapproved or illegal ways of achieving success. This adaptation is termed innovation. Earning a living as a burglar, prostitute, etc. o Fourth, one might attempt to overthrow the existing system and create different goals and means through rebellion. Another influence on an individual’s adaptation is access to deviant roles. Using means of goal achievement–whether legitimate or illegitimate- two structures. o Learning structure–an environment in which an individual can learn the information and skills required. o Opportunity structure–an environment in which an individual has opportunities to play a role, which usually requires the assistance of those in complementary roles. Anomie theory assumes that anyone can be an innovator–through shoplifting, prostitution, or professional theft. But not everyone has access to special knowledge and skills. General Strain Theory One limitation of anomie theory is that it does not specify the mechanism by which the lack of access to legitimate means produces delinquent or criminal behavior is general strain theory. (Agnew, 1992) Agnew proposes that emotion connects to the experience of strain with deviant behavior; strain elicits negative affective states –frustrations, anger, or fear –that create the motivation to act. A measure of strain, including frequency of unpleasant experiences and how well one has achieved his or her goals, predicted the likelihood of offending.  Control Theory Control theory, social ties influence our tendency to engage in deviant behavior. We often conform to social norms because we are sensitive to the wishes and expectations of others. Four components of social bond (Hirschi,1969). o Attachment– Ties of affection and respect for others. Attachment to parents is especially important because they are the primary socializing agent of the child. o Commitment to long-term educational and occupational goals- Someone who aspires to go to law school is unlikely to commit a crime because a criminal record would be an obstacle to a career in law. o Involvement- People who are involved in sports, scouts, church groups, and other conventional activities simply have less time to engage in deviance. o Belief – a respect for the law and persons in positions of authority. Differential Association Theory Differential association theory, developed by Sutherland. He argued that although the law provides a uniform standard for deviance, one group may define a behavior as deviant, whereas another group defines it as desirable. Reactions to Norm Variations Labeling theory is the view that reactions to a norm violation are critical elements in deviance. Only after the act is discovered and labeled “deviant” is the act recognized for it. Labeling theory is an attempt to understand how and why acts are labeled deviant. Reactions to Rule-Breaking Labeling theorist refers to behavior that violates norms as rule- breaking to emphasize that the act by itself is not deviant. Most rule violations are “secret” in the sense that no one other than the actor is aware of them. A common response is denial, in which the person simply does not recognize that a rule violation occurred. Normalization, in which the observer recognizes that the act occurred but defines it as normal or common.  Balancing it, recognizing it as a violation but de-emphasizing its significance in light of the person’s good qualities. Determinants of the Reaction Reactions depend on the following three aspects; 1. Actor Characteristics ~ Reactions to a type of deviance such as mental illness, depend on the specific behavior. Given a vignette describing a person who meets the diagnostic criteria of mental illness, adults are more unwilling to interact with them. We seem to tolerate deviance when are dependent on the person committing the act, perhaps because if we punish the actor it will be costly to us. o More tolerant of rule-breaking by family members, than by strangers. o Person who makes positive contributions in mother ways. In small groups, tolerance is greater for persons who contribute to the achievement of group goals. o Less tolerant if this person has a history of rule- breaking. 2. Audiences Characteristics ~ Reaction to a violation of rules depends on who witnesses it. Because vary in norms, audiences vary in their expectations. o An important influence on whether a witness will label a rule violation is the level of concern in the community about the behavior. Citizens who are concerned about drug use as a social problem are probably more alert for signs of drug sales and use, and are more likely to label someone as a drug user. o Labeling based on stereotypes has important consequences. 3. Situational Characteristics ~ Whether a behavior is construed as normal or labeled as deviant depends on the definition of the situation in which the behavior occurs. For example, sexual activities expected between spouses in the privacy of their homes would elicit condemnation if performed in a public park. Acceptable.  Consequences of Labeling Four possible outcomes are the following: 1. Institutionalization of Deviance. ~ The process by which a member of a group comes to expect and support deviance by another member over time is called the institutionalization of deviance (Dentler & Erikson, 1959). 2. Backtracking ~ When an audience reacts favorably to rule violations, the actor may decide to discontinue the behavior. The second consequence of labeling is called backtracking. 3. Effective Social Control ~ An audience that reacts negatively to rule-breaking and threatens or attempts to punish the actor may force the actor to give up further involvement in the deviant activity. A third consequence of labeling is known as effective social control. This reaction is common among friends, family mem, who often threaten to end their association with an actor who continues to engage in deviance. 4. Unanticipated Deviance ~ Another possibility is unanticipated deviance. Negative reactions by members of an audience are intended to terminate rule-breaking activity. Occurs when the audience response sets in motion, a process that leads the actor to greater involvement in deviance. Societal Reaction Labeling a person is a process of redefining a person. By categorizing a person as a particular kind of deviant, we place a person in a stigmatized social status. There are two important consequences of stigma: status loss and discrimination. (Link & Phelan, 2001) o Loss of status causes a gradual change of self- conception; the person comes to perceive the self as a type of deviant. o Discriminatory behavior by others not only affects one’s self-concept but constrains one’s behavior and opportunities.  Self-Perception of the Deviant Another consequence of stigmatized social status is that it changes the deviant person’s self-image A person labeled deviant often incorporates the label into his or her identity. This redefinition of oneself is due partly to feedback from others who treat the person as deviant. Acceptance of stigmatized identity has an important effect on self- perception. Everyone has beliefs about what people think of specific types of deviant persons. Self-rejection that is feeling that one is no good, a failure, rejected by parents and teachers will increase the likelihood of associating with deviant persons. (Kaplan & Balley, 1987)