SOCI201 Final Guide PDF

SOCI201 DUMAS FINAL STUDY GUIDE *non-cumulative* 55 questions, 42 mc, 13 true/false 1. “Race” and Ethnicity (II) 2. Gender 3. Religion 4. Crime & Deviance 5. Neutralization “RACE” AND ETHNICITY (II) OBJECTIVES 1....

SOCI201 DUMAS FINAL STUDY GUIDE *non-cumulative* 55 questions, 42 mc, 13 true/false 1. “Race” and Ethnicity (II) 2. Gender 3. Religion 4. Crime & Deviance 5. Neutralization “RACE” AND ETHNICITY (II) OBJECTIVES 1. Define Primordialism (per Van Den Berghe) 2. Explain “frustration-aggression theory” 3. Explain “normative approach” and Merton’s Revisions 4. Define the “Vertical Mosaic” 5. Explain “Split Labour Market Theory” (per Bonacich) 1. Primordialism, defined by sociobiologist van den Berghe is a theory that posits that ethnicity is a permanent and instinctive part of human nature. a. Discrimination, prejudice and ethnocentrism are “natural” behaviors, and these features of society will continue because “we cannot eradicate our nature.” b. Counter issues: People will often hurt members of their own ethnic group, and people of di erent groups often work together in anti-racist campaigns c. EXAMPLE: Eugenics Movement: 1920s – 1930s Canadian doctors held belief that immigrants and Indigenous peoples were spreading defects when reproducing with the “Anglo-Saxon” populations. Sterilization campaigns took place against visible minorities, and in 1937 the consent provision was removed (people could be sterilized without consent!) Ended in 1970s. d. PERSON OF NOTE: Rushton: According to Rushton, a psychologist at the University of Western Ontario, there are three races. Negroids, Caucasoids, Mongoloids. He states that Negroids have a biological disposition towards crime and are less intelligent, and Caucasoids and Mongoloids are more intelligent than others. i. ***FLAWED, his research is based in the concept of race and treats it as unproblematic. Faced intense criticism 2. Frustration-Aggression theory suggests that frustration with your life will lead to aggression. It provides a framework for understanding how social frustrations can lead to prejudice, discrimination, and intergroup conflicts. a. When the source of frustration is unclear, powerful, or inaccessible, it’s believed that this aggression is often displaced onto more vulnerable and marginalized groups.  SOCI201 DUMAS FINAL STUDY GUIDE *non-cumulative* 55 questions, 42 mc, 13 true/false 1. “Race” and Ethnicity (II) 2. Gender 3. Religion 4. Crime & Deviance 5. Neutralization 3. Normative Theory, originating in functionalism, refers to a framework concerned with how things should be, rather than how they are. It suggests that individuals are inheritably exposed to certain norms and behaviors. It focuses on setting standards or guidelines for behavior, decisions, ethical, moral, or societal values. a. Prejudice and discrimination against others are passed down through generations, and prejudice and discrimination are socialized into children. Those exposed will exhibit certain discriminatory behaviors: i. How they are perceived ii. What is considered “normal” b. PERSON OF NOTE: Robert Merton (Functionalist): Questioned why some fail to think and act in racist behavior when exposed to racist sentiment, and why some behave in racist fashion when group norms dictate fairness. i. He argued that discrimination may precede prejudice, with stereotypes emerging to justify discriminatory action. Suspected that most are raised with “success norms”, but when an individual does not have the means to obtain success, they resort to blaming others (discrimination, prejudice, stereotyping.) 4. The Vertical Mosaic, by John Porter, is a concept used to describe the multicultural makeup of Canadian society but is vertical to highlight the hierarchical natures of diversity. Di erent ethnic and cultural groups occupy unequal positions in terms of power, wealth and status. Porter reflected on Merton’s functionalist ideas. a. Charter groups (Founding) and Entrance groups (Immigrants), Porter believed that state policies would create a vertical mosaic, with charters at the top and entrances at the bottom. b. PERSON OF NOTE: Satzewich: Satzewich, a conflict theorist, was influenced by Merton and Porter. He sees capitalism as the driving force for prejudice and creative forms of discrimination in society, and immigrants blamed for poor economic scenarios: i. Chinese Head Taxes ii. Exclusionary Rules iii. Systemic Discrimination  SOCI201 DUMAS FINAL STUDY GUIDE *non-cumulative* 55 questions, 42 mc, 13 true/false 1. “Race” and Ethnicity (II) 2. Gender 3. Religion 4. Crime & Deviance 5. Neutralization 5. The Split-Labour Market Theory, from Bonacich, states that within society there are three main groups. Business / Capitalists, High paying WHITE labor, and Low paying NON-WHITE labor. The business classes are benefiting from the fighting between the working classes, and they perpetuate this conflict through discriminatory employment practices. a. This prevents unity among workers and maintains inequalities within the workforce. GENDER OBJECTIVES 1. Define Sex and Gender 2. Define the significance of “The Sexual Continuum” 3. Define Essentialism 4. Outline Essentialism Critiques and Identify how “Essentialist Perspectives Have Created Inequalities” 5. Compare and Contrast “Socialist, Radical, Intersectionist” Feminist Perspective 6. Outline the findings of “The Body Beautiful” 1. Sex is defined as the biological traits of men and women, such as Chromosomal, gonadal, hormonal, sex organs. Gender is defined as the social, cultural, and psychological traits linked to males and females. Sexuality is defined as an individual’s sexual attraction and desires to others, such as bisexual or homosexual. a. It’s important to remember those that deviate from the traditional western binary. What about individuals who are transgender? What about Indigenous 2 Spirit individuals, or Intersex? Where do these people fit in the binary? 2. The Sexual Continuum is a concept developed by Alfred Kinsey, who at the time was a pioneer researcher in human sexuality during the 1940s and 1950s. The Kinsey Scale is a tool used to describe an individual’s sexual orientation based on their experiences and preferences, emphasizing that sexual orientation is not a binary, thus existing on a continuum.  SOCI201 DUMAS FINAL STUDY GUIDE *non-cumulative* 55 questions, 42 mc, 13 true/false 1. “Race” and Ethnicity (II) 2. Gender 3. Religion 4. Crime & Deviance 5. Neutralization a. It’s important to recognize that while groundbreaking at the time, the Kinsey Scale comes with its own problematics. The research group was primarily focused on young university students, and Kinsey also looked at sex with prostitutes and premarital sex. Sexuality cannot be divided into categories, and the living world is a continuum in each one of its aspects. 3. Essentialism in the context of gender and sexuality refers to the belief that gender and sexual identities are biologically determined and fixed, rather than being shaped by social, cultural, or individual factors. a. In brain studies (left vs. right), essentialism suggests that certain cognitive abilities or behaviors are biologically hardwired and linked to certain areas of the brain. It suggests that these brain di erences imply that men and women will naturally be more inclined towards certain skills based on the function of their brains. b. In sociobiology, it argues that genetics and evolution can explain gender di erences, such as that men and women have evolved distinct and essential roles based on their reproductive strategies. Men are perceived as aggressive due to evolutionary needs to secure resources, and women are perceived as nurturing due to the evolutionary need of raising young. c. PERSON OF NOTE: Freud: Freud’s Oedipus (boys) and Electra (girls) complexes are based on the idea that early childhood experiences and biological sex di erences will lead to the development of gender identity. Oedipus suggests that a boy experiences unconscious sexual desire for his mother and rivals his father, while Electra suggests that a girl experiences unconscious sexual desire for her father and rivals his mother and identifies with her mother after realization of “penis envy” (lack of.) (kind of super weird!) 4. Essentialism critiques highlight how many essentialists ignore the historical and cultural variability of gender and sexuality. There are variations in gender across many cultures, and often essentialists look through an ethnocentric lens. They also tend to generalize from the average, ignore variations in gender, and exaggerate the degree to which gender di erences cannot change. a. Gender roles vary widely across cultures, as seen in Mead's study of the Arapesh people in New Guinea. Issues like rape rates also di er greatly, challenging the idea of fixed, biological behaviors. Additionally, gender di erences in abilities are shrinking or disappearing, with studies  SOCI201 DUMAS FINAL STUDY GUIDE *non-cumulative* 55 questions, 42 mc, 13 true/false 1. “Race” and Ethnicity (II) 2. Gender 3. Religion 4. Crime & Deviance 5. Neutralization showing women have a slight advantage in mathematics and no significant di erences in verbal ability. Much of the research used by essentialists is criticized for being incomplete or misleading, such as sociobiologists' failure to identify specific genes linked to fixed gender behaviors, like male aggression. b. Essentialist perspectives have created inequalities and contributed to them in various ways. These perspectives have reinforced often the devaluation of work traditionally done by women and contributes to ongoing inequalities in the workplace and socially. EXAMPLE: Double workdays, where women are expected to balance paid work and domestic responsibilities. Sex segregation, where women are limited to certain roles or industries, and often are undervalued and lower paying. Gender stratification, where essentialism perpetuates a system where men typically hold more power, wealth and prestige than women. Glass ceiling view of gender prevent women from advancing to higher levels of power and leadership. c. Women in the labour force have become so involved since the 1960s due to an increase in the demand for service sector workers, a decrease of children born, and increases in family finances and living costs. Unfortunately, women earn less than men for several reasons, including gender-based di erences that a ect pay rates, the concentration of women in sex-segregated, nonstandard jobs, simple and straightforward discrimination, and the overall devaluation of work typically performed by women. 5. Feminism is a diverse and evolving movement, and di erence feminist perspectives o er distinct analyses of the causes of women’s oppression. Three important feminist perspectives in the context of gender and sexuality: a. Socialist views women’s oppression as being systematically rooted in two systems, Capitalism and Patriarchy. Socialist feminists argue that since women’s oppression is linked to both systems, the need for these systems to be dismantled and restructured is imperative for women’s freedom. Capitalists will benefit greatly from women’s work and domestic duties, but do not pay for this work in an equal way. b. Radical views women’s oppression is inherent in the structure of society, particularly due to gender-based power dynamics. It’s believed that capitalism has little to do with female oppression, and that women are simply oppressed because they are women. The state is male, and  SOCI201 DUMAS FINAL STUDY GUIDE *non-cumulative* 55 questions, 42 mc, 13 true/false 1. “Race” and Ethnicity (II) 2. Gender 3. Religion 4. Crime & Deviance 5. Neutralization the state is the enemy that needs to be dismantled. Oppression of women is deeply embedded in all cultural and societal norms, and women are inherently subordinate. c. Intersectionist views women’s oppression is not uniform but is shaped by multiple and intersecting forms of inequality, such as race, class, sexuality, and gender. It argues that di erent women will experience di erent oppressions and are varied based on their social identities. Women of color may face not only patriarchy, but also racism, which compounds their experiences of discrimination. They see gender as a social construct and argue that society creates roles and expectations based on gender that inherently contribute to inequalities. “ When it comes to who I am, every part of me gets a seat at the table. “– Max S. Gordon 6. In “The Body Beautiful: Adolescent Girls and the Images of Beauty”, Mathews found that adolescent girls were not passive victims of beauty standards, but actively engaged with them. Girls believed that physical appearance was crucial for gaining access to social groups and power, with other girls being their primary audience and harshest critics. a. Mathews also highlighted the alarming fact that the fatality rate for breast augmentation surgeries was significantly higher than for open-heart surgeries. Additionally, Mathews identified four distinct groups among adolescent girls: The Elite, The Wannabees, Life in the Middle, and The Fringe, each navigating beauty standards in di erent ways. RELIGION OBJECTIVES 1. Define Religion and Humanist Perspectives 2. Explain how the Big 3 Perceived Religion (Marx, Durkheim, Weber) 3. Operationalize Religiosity 4. Outline Levels of Personal Religiosity in Canada 5. Explain and Identify the Sources of Religion  SOCI201 DUMAS FINAL STUDY GUIDE *non-cumulative* 55 questions, 42 mc, 13 true/false 1. “Race” and Ethnicity (II) 2. Gender 3. Religion 4. Crime & Deviance 5. Neutralization 1. Religion, defined by Reginald Bibby, is a system of meaning for interpreting the world, and is a unified system of beliefs with some sort of supernatural referent. On the other hand, humanist perspectives views religion as a coping mechanism, and that life has no meaning, so individuals must give it one. a. Counter issues for both perspectives: Humanist perspectives do not negate the importance of religion but focus of the human capacity to deal with life’s challenges through science and rationality. For religious perspectives, they are criticized for fostering conformity and discouraging critical thinking, by emphasizing adherence to tradition and discouraging questioning and exploration of alternative views. b. Bibby states that Alberta is not the bible hotspot of Canada, combating previous beliefs. In fact, Alberta has the second highest rate of “no religious or religious a iliation” in Canada. Bibby argues that Albertans, and Canadians, are still attempting to figure life out, and that “they still pursue e orts to deal with meaning, but relatively few appear to be turning to traditional religion,” perhaps as traditional belief systems may not connect with people and the spirituality they seek. 2. Theorists such as Marx, Durkheim, and Weber all perceived and hypothesized religion in di erent ways. a. MARX and “OPIUM”: Capitalism shapes  Religion Marx views religion as a human creation and serves at the “opium of the people” used as a coping mechanism. He primarily views religion as a tool of oppression, and that religion is simply a product of socio-economic structures. Religion maintains an unequal and exploitive society and delays the inevitable transition towards communism. Eventually, religion will fade away when people no longer need it to cope with su ering. b. DURKHEIM and “HOLEY ANSWERS”: Unfavored Durkheim views religion as a social and human creation that contributes towards a collective conscience of society. It defines sacred and profane elements that continue to influence people’s behavior and societal structures. Durkheim’s functions of religion include: Social cohesion, providing support during crises, addressing ultimate questions, legitimizing political authority, and influencing social change.  SOCI201 DUMAS FINAL STUDY GUIDE *non-cumulative* 55 questions, 42 mc, 13 true/false 1. “Race” and Ethnicity (II) 2. Gender 3. Religion 4. Crime & Deviance 5. Neutralization c. WEBER and “SPIRIT”: Religion shapes  Capitalism Weber views religion as a powerful force that shapes human behavior and societal structures. In his book Protestant Ethnic and Spirit of Capitalism, he argues that certain religious values (particularly from Protestantism) play a crucial role in the development of modern capitalism. Weber essentially focuses on how religion could influence individual actions and help shape modern economic and social systems. 3. Operationalize religiosity refers to the process of defining and measuring religiosity in a way that makes it possible to study empirically. Bibby argues that to find religion’s impact, we have to consider the following in order to assess it. a. Dimensions of Religion by Bibby: 1. The Belief (in God or Concepts) 3. Experience (Directly personal) 2. Practice (activities such as prayer) 4. Knowledge (religious texts) Bibby found that 80% believe in God, 70% believe in life after death, 60% pray at least once a month, but that 25% consider religion to be very important to them. Bibby also stated that we should consider an organizational approach, and to assess religions in terms of: 1. The sources of members 3. Norms and Roles to establish purpose 2. The goals of the group 4. Sanctions to ensure conformity 5. Overall success of the religion These findings suggest that on personal levels, religion is doing well, but collectively it seems to be “withering.” Churches also almost always gain followers through the family and other close-knit groups. b. Personal vs. Collective Religiosity. Personal religiosity can be measured through beliefs, practices, and experiences while collective religiosity is about the behavior and traits of religious groups, and how they function socially. In short, there is no black and white approach to asking about people’s faith in religion, and there is a vast scale in terms of belief and practice. It’s important to di erentiate between religious and non-religious.  SOCI201 DUMAS FINAL STUDY GUIDE *non-cumulative* 55 questions, 42 mc, 13 true/false 1. “Race” and Ethnicity (II) 2. Gender 3. Religion 4. Crime & Deviance 5. Neutralization 5. What causes people to become religious? It’s important to remember that there is a di erence between source and cause. Which sources then cause people to become religious? a. Reflection: Good Source: Religious people are more likely to reflect on life questions or personal questions, considered a good course to cause people to become religious. b. Socialization: Not Isolated: Socialization is necessary to become religious, but is not su icient of cause to become religious on it’s own. c. Deprivation: Poor Source: Deprivation does not seem to produce religiosity in the way Marx proposes. What does religion look like in Canada? Current findings suggest that there is a high degree of religious tolerance, Catholics and Protestants have the most members but are now declining, and Islamic, Sikh, Buddhist followers are now increasing due to immigration. Bibby claims that Canadians are now turning to “fragments” of traditional religions, but not adopting the entire practice (Fragmented Gods). CRIME & DEVIANCE OBJECTIVES 1. Di erentiate between Crime and Deviance 2. Explain Significance of the Crime Funnel Model 3. Identify and Explain Components of a Moral Panic 4. Outline the 7 Perspectives on Crime 5. Explain Merton’s Typology 1. Crime and Deviance are related but hold di erent definitions that describe behaviors that are considered unacceptable and condemned within a society.  SOCI201 DUMAS FINAL STUDY GUIDE *non-cumulative* 55 questions, 42 mc, 13 true/false 1. “Race” and Ethnicity (II) 2. Gender 3. Religion 4. Crime & Deviance 5. Neutralization a. Norms refer to the expectations of behavior, how groups expect individuals to act. Crime refers to the breaking of laws. For example, an act may be criminal, but not necessarily deviant, such as speeding by a few kilometers. It’s common and a lot may do it, but it still holds legal consequences. Deviance refers to the violation of normative behavior. For example, an act may be deviant, but not a crime, such as extreme body modifications like an abundance of face piercings or whole-body tattoos. b. Crime refers to the violation of laws set by society. Key distinctions include: A behavior might be criminal but not deviant (e.g., speeding slightly, which is common and not considered deviant but still illegal).A behavior might be deviant but not criminal (e.g., extreme forms of self- expression, like unconventional body modifications or fashion). c. Hagan’s Classification: Consensus Crimes: Acts considered harmful to society and punishable with severe sanctions (e.g., murder, assault). These are classified as mala in se (wrong in themselves). Conflict Crimes: Acts where societal consensus on harm is less clear, and these are considered mala prohibita (wrong because they are prohibited). d. A form of control refers to the ways in which society regulates and manages people’s behavior, to ensure conformity to social norms and laws. Formal control is exercised by the state and institutions. Informal control is enforced by family, friends, and peers, such as teasing or discipline. Self-control is considered the most e ective form of control by deviance researchers. 2. The Crime Funnel represents the disparity between the number of crimes committed and those detected, reported, and punished by the justice system. This model highlights the significant drop- o in the number of cases that progress through the justice system and emphasizes that only a small fraction of all crimes committed result in incarceration. * Of reported crime, 35.29% is property crime, 14.71% is violent crime, 50% is deemed "other" o ences like mischief or bail violations.  SOCI201 DUMAS FINAL STUDY GUIDE *non-cumulative* 55 questions, 42 mc, 13 true/false 1. “Race” and Ethnicity (II) 2. Gender 3. Religion 4. Crime & Deviance 5. Neutralization The steps include: 1. All Crime (detected or undetected) 2. Detected Crime (reported or unreported) 3. Reported Crime (founded or unfounded) 4. Founded Crime 5. Crime Taken to Court (convicted or acquitted) 6. Convicted 3. Becker’s Moral Crusaders: According to Becker, "moral crusaders" are individuals or groups who believe that certain behaviors are dangerous and must be eliminated. Their e orts can lead to moral panics, which are characterized by: a. Concern: Awareness grows that the group or behavior in question is harmful. b. Hostility: The group being targeted is demonized, often referred to as "folk devils." c. Consensus: A large portion of society agrees on the need to address the perceived threat. d. Disproportionality: The public’s fears are exaggerated compared to the actual threat. e. Volatility: Moral panics tend to be temporary, rising quickly and fading just as rapidly. 4. Understanding crime requires often looking at various sociological perspectives to explain why individuals engage in deviant behavior, and how society responds to it. They provide unique frameworks for analyzing crime, and each emphasizes di erent factors. a. Pluralism:  Pluralism argues that the law reflects the interests and values of the majority, with individuals and groups having a voice in the creation of laws and the justice system. b. Conflict Theory:  SOCI201 DUMAS FINAL STUDY GUIDE *non-cumulative* 55 questions, 42 mc, 13 true/false 1. “Race” and Ethnicity (II) 2. Gender 3. Religion 4. Crime & Deviance 5. Neutralization  Conflict theory asserts that the ruling class (bourgeoisie) creates laws that benefit their interests while criminalizing behaviors of the lower class (proletariat), maintaining social inequality. c. Postmodernism:  Postmodernists claim that crime is socially constructed, and those who control the media and information have the power to shape public perceptions and criminalize certain behaviors. d. Strain Theory:  Derived from functionalism, strain theory, proposed by Robert Merton, suggests that crime occurs when individuals face strain from unmet societal expectations (e.g., wealth, success) and lack the means to achieve those goals. This results in deviant behavior as an adaptation to frustration. e. Learning Theory:  Learning theory posits that criminal and deviant behavior is learned through interactions with others. Individuals engage in "di erential association" by learning the techniques and justifications for deviance from peers or mentors.  Techniques of Neutralization: People learn ways to neutralize their deviant actions, like rationalizing or justifying their behavior. f. Control Theory:  Control theory argues that individuals engage in deviant behavior when the social bonds that encourage conformity (e.g., family, school, peers) are weak. People conform because they have been taught self-control through socialization.  Self-Control: The most e ective form of control, according to this theory, is internalized self-control, instilled through social interactions. g. Labelling Theory:  Labelling theory states that people become deviant because society labels them as such. Once labeled as deviant, individuals may internalize the label, influencing their future behavior. For example, a student who is labeled as a "bad student" may embrace this label and act in ways that reinforce the stereotype. 5. Merton’s Typology: Merton’s typology explains how individuals respond to societal goals (like wealth or success) and the accepted means to achieve them. This typology helps explain the varied ways people cope with societal pressures and the consequences of deviance.  SOCI201 DUMAS FINAL STUDY GUIDE *non-cumulative* 55 questions, 42 mc, 13 true/false 1. “Race” and Ethnicity (II) 2. Gender 3. Religion 4. Crime & Deviance 5. Neutralization 1. Conformity (+, +): Individuals accept both societal goals and the prescribed means of achieving them (e.g., working hard to achieve success). 2. Innovation (+, -): Individuals accept societal goals but reject or find new ways to achieve them, such as engaging in criminal activities like stealing to get rich. 3. Ritualism (-, +): Individuals abandon society’s broader goals but continue to adhere to the accepted means, such as following rules but with no aspiration for advancement (e.g., going through the motions at work without seeking promotions). 4. Retreatism (-, -): Individuals reject both societal goals and means, often withdrawing from society’s expectations (e.g., addiction or vagrancy). 5. Rebellion (+/-, +/-): Individuals reject both the societal goals and means, aiming to create new systems and ideals (e.g., political protests or revolutionary movements). FINAL QUESTIONS I’ll be posting some final questions later tonight! Any questions or if any info is incorrect, please @LUTSK on the SOCI201 server!