SOC 101 Midterm Exam Study Guide PDF

SOC 101 Midterm Study Guide Dr. Hamill Notes on the exam: Please bring a pencil to class on the day of the exam. There will be roughly 70-75 multiple-choice and true/false questions. Everything covered in class and in the readings is fair game but be sure to review the following in particular. NOT...

SOC 101 Midterm Study Guide Dr. Hamill Notes on the exam: Please bring a pencil to class on the day of the exam. There will be roughly 70-75 multiple-choice and true/false questions. Everything covered in class and in the readings is fair game but be sure to review the following in particular. NOTE: If you have accommodation from the ADRC and will be completing the exam in their office please see me at least 5 days prior to the exam so we can coordinate arrangements. As you review, be sure that you understand not just the concept, but how the concept or term is applied to the social world. With the theories, be sure you think through how to apply the theories to real world situations, and how a critic of the theory might argue against that particular approach. The Sociological Perspective, Research Methods You should know the following terms & concepts: Sociology: The systematic study of human societies and human behavior. The term was coined by Auguste Comte. Unlike other social sciences, sociology studies contemporary, large societies and their structures, as well as how people interact. Sociological perspective: Understand how the ordinary, mundane things and decisions of individuals affect the world we live in. Developing a sociological perspective allows us to understand how the culture we are embedded in, as well as their systems and institutions, shapes our everyday decisions. Developing the sociological perspective involves: a: Seeing the general in the particular: Looking at general patterns and observations. Ex: Men are more likely to die by suicide than women. B: Seeing the strange in the familiar. This involves developing a "beginner's mind", which involves letting go of assumptions and ethnocentrism. Involves culture shock, a phenomenon which evokes emotions when encountering new or unfamiliar observations about societies. C: Seeing society in everyday choices. Ex: How does society influence whether people choose to commit suicide? Social structure (see structural-functional theory below) The systems and/or institutions that make up society. These are social groups that are interwoven into our daily interactions in society. Manifest functions: The intended consequences of a function in a social structure. For example, the criminal justice system provides social cohesion by hiring police officers to enforce laws and to protect members of society. Latent functions: The unintended, positive consequences of a structure. For example, students who attend school may be given opportunities to socialize with their peers and explore new interests and extracurricular activities. Macro-level analysis: This is a "big picture” approach to studying society. This level of analysis focuses on the larger social structures that institutions that make up a given society. Sociologists who support conflict theory will use this approach to examine how social structures create opportunities for inequalities to manifest. Micro-level analysis: This is a "small scale” approach that looks at interactions and group and individual behavior. For example, a symbolic interactionist will look at how groups and individuals construct meaning from interactions and labels. Research Methods and Data Collection experiment: A scientific exercise to test a hypothesis or answer a question. The test is done in a controlled setting, usually a science lab, using a set of variables. Exapples: The Asch experiment. independent and dependent variables The independent variable is what is being changed. Your dependent variable is your output (the end result), which is dependent on the independent variable. The best way to think of this is to imagine an equation like y = 2x+5. X is your independent variable, which can change. Your end result (Y) will depend on what you plug in for X. For a scientific example, whether an object floats or sinks depends on the density of an object. causality vs. correlation Correlation statistically describes the relationship between two or more variables. Causation explainings why and how these results happen. Causation does not always lead to causation. Independent variables precede dependent variables over time. Hawthorne effect: People tend to modify their behavior because they know that they are being observed. This theory is based on a historical experiment performed in the twentieth century, which took place at an industrial factory in Hawthorne, Chicago. secondary data analysis / existing sources: This research technique involves analyzing information collected from pre-existing sources, such as websites, journals, newspapers, magazines, historical documents, etc. For example, a sociologist could find data from the CDC about Covid-19 cases to understand how systems of power are creating inequalities that give black Americans limited access to healthcare. participant observation (fieldwork) / ethnography: Participant observation involves observing a group of individuals and participating in their daily activities in order to gain insights about how ordinary, mundane things uncover the hidden societal structures that influence them. For example, a sociologist may participate in a cultural dance in order to understand how people interpret and assign meaning to different gestures and/or traditions. An ethnography is a comprehensive piece that conveys the finding of a study or research project in the form of a story. The story can take the form of a book, an essay, a film, or even a musical composition! surveys/interviewing: Surveys involve giving respondents (usually a particular group of individuals) a questionnaire to collect information about the daily habits, traditions, interactions, and issues that plague a given society. Surveys can provide statistical data that could aid them in making an analysis and drawing conclusions about societies, and the systems of power that contribute to the many inequalities that exist. Contrastly, Interviews are conversations that sociologists have with groups of individuals. Interviews can be conducted virtually or in-person. Much like a job interview, this research method allows sociologists to hear the collective testimonials of individuals orally.  closed or open-ended questions: Closed Questions are questions that only yield a simple answer, like yes or no. Ex: "Do you like pizza?” Open-ended questions are questions that force an individual to give a thoughtful response (usually a few sentences). Ex: "What was your experience as a nurse during the Covid-19 pandemic?” random samples: Sociologists randomly select a group of individuals (usually from a list or computer) who will participate in the research study. The sample is a general representation of a larger population. What is each of these? mean: The average of all of the values in a data set. This is calculated by adding all of the numbers and dividing that sum by the number of values on the data set. For example, if there were 4 values, you would add those values, and then divide by 4 to get the average of those values. median: The middle number of a dataset or a list of values. Ex: in the data set {6, 11, 14, 18, 15, 13}, the number in the middle is (18+14)/2 = 16. mode: The value that appears most within a data set. Ex: the mode of {4, 4, 6, 11, 11, 11, and 13} is 11, because the number 11 appears the most amount of times. triangulation: This is a research method that involves using multiple techniques to examine a single phenomenon or observations. Ex: An interview can be combined with existing research to study rural life in Africa. Be sure to review: Durkheim’s theory explaining differing suicide rates among various groups Durkeim conducted a study suicide rates among various groups (ex. Protestants vs Catholics). The results of the study showed that Protestant, single, and wealthy individuals were more likely to die of suicide compared to Catholics, Jews, poor people, and those who are married. Durkeim attributed these results to a theory known as social integration, which implies that the conditions of society can influence our own personal choices. In this case, those who belong to a community with shared are less likely to die by suicide. Auguste Comte… first used term "sociology” Comte theorized that the study of society is a complex task that requires a scientific approach. In 1838, he coined the term "sociology", the systematic study of human societies. Comte's theory of positivism states that societies continually evolve over time. In other words, all societies are malleable. Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment: Was it ethical? The Stanford Prison Experiment was a social psychology study led by Philip Zimbardo in 1971 that examined how people behave in a simulated prison environment: The goal of the experiment was to examine how behavior is influenced by labels, societal expectations, and roleplaying. The guards became cruel and sadistic, while the prisoners became depressed and hopeless. As a result, the experiment was shut down after six days. The experiment has been criticized for a number of ethical concerns, including lack of informed consent and psychological harm to participants. These are two crucial rules of ethical research that were breached. Who were W.E.B. DuBois and Harriett Martineau? W.ence.b Du Bois was one of several founders of sociology. Web Du Bois Contribution To Sociology: Web Du Bois's major contribution to sociology was his philosophy of race, where he viewed race as a socially constructed concept that greatly impacts people's lives, rather than a mere biological distinction. A major Harriet Martineau contribution to sociology was the translation of Auguste Comte's work from French to English. Additionally, she was the first woman sociologist, and through her articles and books showed that all aspects of society should reflect fairness along with equality. Theory (defined) The three major theoretical paradigms used in sociology (including at least one strength and one weakness of each and which ones are macro-level and micro-level) Structural-functional: This macro level (big picture) approach examines how systems, structures, and institutions work together to establish social cohesion and stability. Think of society as a human body, where systems work together to ensure that society functions in a way that promotes cohesion. Question: How do social structures and/or systems meet the needs of society and promote stability/cohesion? Manifest functions: Intended functions. Ex: Colleges contribute to social stability by giving students the necessary academic and professional skills needed to succeed in the workplace. Latent functions: Unintended, but positive consequences of a structure. Ex: Although not specifica intended, the college provides social stability by creating opportunities for students to participate in extracurricular activities that would build personal and/or professional relationships. Dysfunctions: Negative consequences that exist in these structures which may allow for inequalities to manifest. Ex: Because of America's tragic history of racism, black youth are at increased risk of being incarcerated once they find themselves in trouble with the criminal justice system. (additional) Key words (list them here): stability/cohesion/equilibrium, latent function, manifest function, dysfunction Strengths: Structural functionalism can accurately model aspects of society, and it can relate society to other topics of study. It can also show how organizations meet the needs of individuals and society, and how these organizations are interrelated. Weaknesses: While this macro level analysis provides a basic understanding of the functions of a social structure, the theory fails to explain social change. It also fails to consider inequalities among gender, class, and race. Conflict: Conflict theory focuses on the relationship between inequality and power. Specifically, this macro level approach examines who gains and who loses out (financially or otherwise) from the way institutions are organized?  While politicians gain more power of respect when they are elected, minority groups, such as poor or middle class families, lose out when decisions are made (ex. Healthcare). Social class conflict/Marx: One of the major contributors of the conflict theory, Karl Marx heavily emphasized the relationship between class and conflict/inequality. In other words, there is an ongoing battle between the working class (proletariat) and the capitalists (bourgeoisie) over who will control the means of production. This conflict results in social change and creates inequality. Race conflict: A conflict theory that focuses on the relationship between race, conflict, and inequality. Race conflict theory is a sociological theory that suggests that dominant groups in society use law enforcement to minimize threats to their interests, particularly from minorities and the poor. Examples: Jim Crow laws, literacy tests Gender conflict/feminist theory: Places gender as the focus of analysis. Ex: The fight to protect women's rights. Key words (list them here): Power, inequality, limited resources Strengths: The theory effectively explains why inequalities exist, and capitalizes on the struggle between powerful institutions and those who are marginalized. Weaknesses: Fails to take into account diverse cultural values and how everyday interactions shape behavior. Symbolic-interactionism: Unlike the other two theories, this is a microlevel approach to studying society. This theory examines how people interpret social roles, create labels, and construct reality and meaning from everyday interactions (ex: Symbols, gestures). Example: The interactions between a police officer and a Black man are different from the interactions between a police officer and a white man. Key words (list them here): Labels, meaning, social construction of reality, microlevel Culture & Society Know the following terms and concepts: Culture: The way of life of a group of people that acts as a perceived view of how people see the world and others and that is passed from generation to generation; uses material and symbolic elements. Material Culture: Material culture is the totality of physical objects and belongings of members of a group of people. Examples of material culture include money, tools, weapons, utensils, machines, clothing, ornaments, art, buildings, and monuments. Communication: Signs/Symbols: Representational items that hold meaning within a culture, like flags, gestures, or religious icons. Ex: The American flag as a symbol of freedom. Gestures (non-verbal): Used to express oneself using your hands, face, body movements, or by looking. Examples: Shaking hands, thumbs up. It is important to note that the meaning of such gestures can change from culture to culture. Language: A system of communication used by a group, including spoken and written words, which shapes how people understand the world. Beliefs: Deeply held principles or ideas that are shared Values: What is good or bad, beautiful or ugly, right or wrong. Ex: Many ancient monarchies value royalty as an essential attribute. Norms: Established behavioral expectations that characterize a society that people must abide by in order to gain respect or some other reward. Ex: Employees in the workplace are expected to shake hands with employers before a job interview, as this is an indication that you are polite and respectful. For other cultures, shaking hands could be interpreted as rude or offensive. Mores: Mores are unwritten social expectations that are deeply ingrained into a culture. For example, plagiarism is considered a serious breach of a more in the academic setting, which can result in expulsion or course failure. Folkways: Folkways are the norms that apply to everyday activities in one's life, including shaking hands when greeting someone, taking off one's hat indoors, not putting one's elbows on the table, and opening a door for someone. Society: A culture with a set of shared beliefs and norms that define how people and groups interact and live together. Culture shock: A phenomenon which evokes emotions when encountering new or unfamiliar observations about societies. Homo Sapiens/humans: what helps ensure our survival? Social bonds helped ensure the survival of humans. The more connected we are, the more likely we are to survive. Hegemonic or dominant culture: The dominant culture is a culture that is mainstream and widely accepted. They have mainstream values, norms, and ideologies. They hold more power and influence over other cultures. Subculture: A culture within a culture; a group within a larger society that holds distinct values, beliefs, and behaviors that differ from the dominant culture, often with their own unique norms and practices, essentially creating a smaller cultural group within the wider society. They embrace the traditions and norms of mainstream culture. Counterculture: A group that actively challenges the mainstream norms and practices of a particular culture. Multiculturalism: Multiculturalism is defined as allowing many individual cultures to exist within one country. It is the idea that many different types of cultures can exist within one nation. Ethnocentrism vs. Cultural relativism Ethnocriticism: A flawed assumption or judgment about a particular culture that allows you to view your own culture as the superior or "correct” one. Ex: Americans are superior to the British because we are a very rich country. England is just a poor country full of lazy people. Cultural Relativism involves judging other cultures based on their own standards instead of comparing them (letting go of assumptions). This involves respecting cultures and seeking to learn something. We must let go of ethnocentrism and see the world from a new perspective. Cultural transmission: When a culture's values, rituals, language, norms, , and traditions are passed down to future generations. Three ways that culture changes: Diffusion: When cultural elements like customs, food, or fashion spread from one society to another through contact, often facilitated by migration, trade, or media. Discover: Discovery happens through innovation and globalization. Culture can change by inventing new ideas, traditions, norms, symbols, or vocabulary words or expressions to keep up with changes in their society. For example, the term "Covidiot” is a new term that was invented to describe a person who willfully violated quarantine restrictions from the government during the Covid pandemic. The integration of markets, which facilitates the exchange of information, people, and goods between cultures. Invention: Cultures can invent new traditions , or beliefs, especially in response to the environment. Be sure to review: The major components of culture (identified in the terms above) Otaku culture: main ideas Otaku culture includes various aspects of pop culture, including anime, manga, and other literature. These people are absorbed into the subculture, and are the equivalent of a "nerd“. While the term "otaku" initially carried negative connotations, implying social isolation and obsessive behavior, it has evolved to be recognized as a positive expression of passionate fandom and creativity in recent years. Also, think about how culture provides us with freedom, but also how it constrains us (i.e., how it operates as a form of social control). Being involved in a culture can carry several benefits, including feeling like you belong in a community with shared beliefs, interests, values, and norms. On the other hand, if you deviate away from the cult?re's expectations, you could risk facing formal or informal sanctions, depending on the nature of the behavior in question. For example, deviant members could faced permanent separation to the group if they continually defy their norms and values. Think about nature vs. nurture and how sociologists deal with this question. Nature states that our biology determines our behavior (ex. People are born to murder). Nurture implies that our behaviors are learned by society (we are socialized to act in certain ways). Sociologically, we lean more toward the nurture side of the equation. Our biology needs social interaction to flourish and survive. Think about how the Industrial Revolution changed society, leading to the development of sociology The industrial Revolution rapidly increasing urbanization, changing labor practices, and creating vast social inequalities. This created the need for a discipline dedicated to studying how these social changes impact our everyday lives, decisions, and behaviors. This watershed moment led to the genesis of sociology. Socialization and Social Interaction in Everyday Life Be sure to know: Socialization: the process by which individuals learn and internalize the values, beliefs, and norms of their society, essentially becoming functioning members of that community through interactions with others, primarily starting within their family unit and expanding to wider social circles throughout life Anticipatory socialization: The process of adopting the values and behaviors of a group that someone wants to join. This helps us prepare for significant transitions and changes in our social roles. For example, a person who wishes to join the military must be socialized to wear proper uniforms and address sergeants as "sir” or "ma'm” as a sign of respect. Cultural capital: In the field of sociology, cultural capital comprises the social assets of a person (education, intellect, style of speech, style of dress, social capital, etc.) that promote social mobility in a stratified society. This is a person's 'status’ in a culture. Cooley’s Looking-glass self: The theory, as nosed by sociologist Charles Horton Cooley suggests that people's self-identities can be based on both accurate and inaccurate perceptions of others' views. This self-perception is usually shaped by social settings, and it can be determined based on what others think about you, or from introspection. This knowledge helps shape our behaviors. For example, a person may choose to hide the fact that they got drunk last night to an employer because the employer may perceive him as an alcoholic, which would likely get him fired. Agents of socialization: Peer socialization: Peers can aid in the process of socialization by helping you adopt certain values and behaviors that may be in conflict with your family. For example, a child will often learn from her peers that doing competitive sports that require heavy physical exertion is a sign of masculinity. Mass media socialization: The media can help you learn to adopt values, behaviors, ideologies, and other cultural elements to function in society. For example, a cartoon can help a young child learn the expectations of various social settings, including the norm of saying please and thank you when eating out with family and friends. Family socialization: Families can influence us to behave in certain ways. This can also include instilling certain religious beliefs that can help you cultivate values. For example, a mother may prohibit a child from celebrating Halloween because their faith deems it as "Satanic". Education/schools socialization: Schools can socialize their students. For example, schools teach their children to become patriotic citizens by receiving them to recite the Pledge or sing the National Anthem. Freud’s id, ego, and superego as it relates to sociology and nature/nurture Id (Nature): This primitive part of the mind contains basic instincts like hunger, sex, aggression, and operates on the "pleasure principle," seeking immediate gratification without considering consequences or social rules. It is considered largely innate and present at birth (we are born that way). Ego: The ego develops as a child interacts with the world, learning to balance the id's desires with the constraints of reality and the superego's moral demands. It operates on the "reality principle," aiming to find realistic ways to satisfy the id's needs while adhering to social norms. Superego: Representing the internalized moral code, the superego develops through parental teachings and societal values. Think of this as our moral conscience. Mead’s theory of the social self, including the “generalized other” Mead's theory of the social self is based on the perspective that the self emerges from social interactions, such as observing and interacting with others, responding to others' opinions about oneself, and internalizing external opinions and internal feelings about oneself. Special experiences allow us to exchange symbols, create meaning, and understand our intentions. This requires imagining the scenario from the other's perspective (empathy). Finally, we take on the role of the other. Think of this like a game (ex. A child pretending to play with fire engines is in the shoes of the other, a firefighter). Be sure the review: Where do personalities come from? Social Cognitive Theory The inner psychology of individuals, their environment, and their behavior all influence each other. People are best understood in terms of three types of cognitive abilities: those that help them represent events symbolically in their minds, self-reflect, and self-development. Key influences that develop someone's personality include family dynamics/upbringing, cultural norms, and social roles/status, and other factors. Sociologically, what do we learn from cases of childhood isolation? Cases of children who have grown up in isolation teach us that socialization is a vital part of human development and that a lack of social contact can have many negative consequences, including delayed cognitive and emotional development, a lack of social skills, and an inability to acquire the norms of being human. Personality does not develop fully. Notes on the study of Rhesus monkeys raised in relative isolation (from lecture). The experiments involve a group of monkeys being socially isolated for an extended period of time. The first six months involved being completely isolated. The next six months involved monkeys being raised by a "mesh” mother. The final six months involved being raised by a teddy mother. The experiment highlighted the importance of developing emotional attachments and social bonds early in life, a key stage in socialization. Our class discussion of the Kohn’s study of family socialization and class-based expectations for their offspring Middle-class and working-class parents' work experiences influence their parenting styles, leading to different emphases on obedience and conformity for working-class parents, and judgment and creativity for wealthier parents, perpetuating the class system through socialization. Be sure to know the following: Status: The positions we hold in society. : Student, teacher, mother Master status: the social position that is considered the primary identifying characteristic of an individual, often overshadowing other statuses and significantly shaping how they are perceived and treated in social interactions. Achieved status: a social position that a person earns or acquires based on their own merit, effort, and choices. Ex: A person who successfully completes four years of high school with a passing grade is considered a high school graduate. Ascribed status: A status that is acquired at birth (ex: Gender). Embodied status: The way a person's physical body, including appearance, posture, and demeanor, contributes to their perceived social status, essentially how their body "embodies" their position within a social hierarchy. Role: a set of expected behaviors, values, norms, beliefs, and obligations that are associated with a particular social status. Ex: The role of priest. Role conflict: When a person experiences tension from at least two social roles conflicting with each other. Ex: Female firefighter. Role strain: When a person experiences tension from one social role conflicting. Ex: A performer may struggle to find the time to practice their songs while fitting in their commitment to a college education. Goffman and Dramaturgical analysis: The theory suggests we serve social actors on a stage. We perform in order to create an impression of ourselves in public view. Frontstage is where people perform for others, often portraying an ideal image. Backstage is behind closed doors, where they practice for the performance. Presentation of self / impression management Presentation of Self: A specific component of impression management that focuses on how people present themselves to others. Example: How people dress for job interviews to present themselves as professional. Impression management: When we control how others perceive us (which could be motivated by a desire to be accepted). Idealization / idealized performance: a concept in sociology that describes how people present themselves to others by emphasizing socially desirable aspects of their personality and hiding undesirable traits. Putting on a facade. Thomas Theorem: People's actions are determined by their subjective interpretation of a situation, rather than by objective reality. If men see situations as real, then they are real in their consequences. Structuration: Human behavior is constrained by social structures (duality structures). For example, people can behave differently if they are in church vs when they are at school. Be sure to review: The social construction of reality and its relationship to culture and social structures the process by which people A social construction of reality is creatively shape reality through social interaction. Contrary to what we may think, Blomer explaining the following: “human beings interpret or ‘define’ each other’s actions instead of merely reacting to each other’s actions.” Our response is shaped by the meaning we attach to actions Meanings are shaped by interactions with others and the larger society Reality emerges in this process Hochschild and “emotion work": Emotion work is the act of manipulating emotions to create feelings that are appropriate for a situation. This is another term for emotional regulation. For example, in most cultures, it is socially inappropriate for workers to express their anger when interacting with customers; they are expected to maintain a smile on their face as a sign of professionalism. Groups and Organizations Be sure to know: Formal organizations: a group deliberately structured with a set of established rules, procedures, and hierarchical relationships, designed to achieve specific goals efficiently, often with a clear division of labor and authority, like a company, school, or government agency. Formal organizations usually have an official code of conduct that outlines the expected behaviors of members. Think: Sororities, sports teams Social group: A group that identifies and interacts with one another, sharing common interests and loyalties. People with shared status are just crowds. Primary group: A small, personal group that emphasizes emotional ties. Members are irreplaceable. Think: Parents, grandparents. Secondary group: An impersonal group with less emotional ties. Members can be replaced. These groups exist to achieve a common goal. Ex: Professional committees, coworkers Reference group: individuals or groups that influence our opinions, beliefs, attitudes and behaviors. Think: Celebrities In-group: a social group that an individual identifies with and feels a strong sense of belonging to, often viewing themselves and other members positively, while perceiving those outside the group (out-group) less favorably. An in-growth helps individuals become loyal and develop a sense of identity. Out-group: A group which individuals don't identify with. Dyad: A group of two people. The success and survival of the group is contingent on the other person's loyalty. Ex: Marriage Triad: A group of three people. Unlike dyads, which involve significant personal interaction, triads are relatively stable, since this is a larger group size, making interaction relatively impersonal. Networks: Networks are a theoretical construct that can be used to study relationships between individuals, groups, organizations, or even societies. The individuals or organizations that participate in a social network are called nodes, and the connections between them are called ties. Ties can be strong, like family bonds, or weak, like acquaintances. Virtual communities: Virtual communities are groups that form online to communicate one's interests, goals, and values. An example would be a chatroom for people to discuss political issues ⠔ preparation for an election. The debate over “group ties in a digital world” and how it relates to Durkheim’s concern over anime and modern life. With the rise of the Internet and social media platforms, many experts Durkheim expressed concern that forming group ties online ⠉⠕⠉⠗⠑⠁⠉⠗⠂⠞⠑⠞⠑ state of normlessness. This dangerous state could create the potential for individuals to feel worthless, isolated, depressed, or even suicidal, a consequence of the absence of face to face interaction and strong emotional ties. What is social networking… you’re not the customer; you’re the product” mean? Social networking sites wondered how people would react to emotional content online. Sites such as Facebook int[q~"]entionally filtered their feeds to only show emotional content without the consent of followers. We are all seen as "products” of an experiment instead of a valued customer. Group Conformity: The tendency of people to adjust their beliefs, behaviors, or perceptions to match the norms of a group. This can be done through ⠏⠻⠎⠥⠁⠨⠝⠂ by example, or by coercion. Milgram’s research: The purpose of this experiment was to see how people respond to the directives of authority figures. Volunteers were tricked into shocking learners who answered a series of questions incorrectly. The amount of shock that was applied increased for every incorrect question. The "shocking” was actually faked and recorded, but the participants experienced severe trauma. The experiment demonstrated that people are conditioned to obey authority, even when it is harmful or conflicts with their values. The experiment was harshly criticized for its lack of informed consent and its deceptive tactics. Asch’s research: Asch found that a significant portion of participants conformed to the group's incorrect answer, even when it was obvious that the group was wrong. The experiment highlights the importance of group dynamics and peer pressure; this demonstrates how groups can influence people to do things, even when they know it is wrong. Weber’s rationalization of society: Max Weber's theory of rationalization of society is a sociological concept that describes the process of replacing traditions and values with logic and rationality. Weber believed that rationalization would improve self-esteem and self-concept, and allow people to better understand each other. McDonaldization of society: a term used to describe the process by which the principles of fast-food restaurants are applied to the wider world. All aspects of society are looking to make things efficient, predictable, and calculated, just like McDonalds. Bureaucracy 6 key elements of bureaucratic organizations a: Specialized duties, responsibilities, and roles B. Hierarchies and ranks (ex. Presidents, clerks) Rules and regulations that make the organization predictable and efficient Technical competence (you are being evaluated) Formal written communication Rules are favored over people Ascription vs achievement Informal side of bureaucracy (grapevine) from lecture Stubborn and rebellious people resist (ex. Workers requesting breaks, holidays, or sick leave). Some leaders encourage informality and casualty (lax on rules or communication standards) The grapevine effect is a concept that describes the spread of information, gossip, or rumors through informal channels. Problems of bureaucracy (impersonalization, inefficiency and ritualism, alienation, inertia) Many bureaucracies make people feel alienated and dehumanized. They are just numbers or statistics instead of actual human beings. The red tape: Too many rules, procedures, and paperwork. Bureaucracies are inefficient and are slow to adapt to change. Inertia: the tendency of large organizations to maintain established procedures and policies, even when they are no longer effective or relevant. Ritualistic: No room for creativity; too repetitive. Deviance Deviance: When an individual defies the established norms of a culture or society. Such behavior elicits a negative reaction. Example: A child who disobeys her mother is deemed deviant and would most likely get scolded at or grounded. Positive deviance: When defying established norms or societal expectations contributes to positive change. Example: Rosa Parks refusing to give up her seat to a white man sparked the genesis of the Civil Rights Movement, which shed light on the racial disparities that African-Americans continued to face. Durkheim’s functions of deviance: Deviance has several important functions in society, including: a: The need to clarify expectations. Ex: When a child misbehaves, a teacher may need to reteach expectations and model desired behaviors. b. Strengthening social bonds by standing against the deviant, declaring their deeds unacceptable. This may be imposed on confronting the deviant and giving them appropriate punishments. C. When deviance is sanctioned, this leads to positive social change. The main point of “The Devil’s Playground” Amish film clip (from lecture)… how does it illustrate the functionalist approach to deviance? The film illustrates how people can experience strain or frustration when they are prevented from achieving culturally approved goals through institutional means. This strain can lead to deviance. They may rebel against the institution's values to achieve their goals and establish their identity. Theories of deviance: Merton's strain theory describes how people adapt to the gap between culturally-valued goals and the means to achieve them. Innovation: Pursuing culturally-accepted goals through illegitimate or unacceptable means Ritualism: Rejecting the idea of striving for culturally-accepted goals but continuing to work within the framework of socially-approved means Retreatism: Rejecting both culturally-accepted goals and socially-approved means, and retreating from society Rebellion: Rejecting both culturally and socially approved goals and means, and defining their own goals and means of achieving them Differential Association: a criminological theory that suggests that people learn criminal behavior through interactions with others. For example, people can learn criminal behavior by joining a gang. On a lower level, a friend could persuade you to start drinking and make a fake ID to sneak into a bar underage. Labeling theory and its shortcomings: Labeling theory predicts that labeling will vary by status characteristics even when controlling for previous deviant behavior. The criticism, however, stems from the fact that labeling theory does not require that status characteristics are the most important determinant of labeling. Furthermore, the theory fails to take into account other factors that determine why people become deviant. Primary vs secondary deviance Primary deviance: The initial deviant behavior (ex. Drinking alcohol) Secondary deviance: A deviant act that follows after being labeled for the initial violation. (ex. Being labeled an alcoholic may lead to the person doing a drunk driver or other similar act). What does Elijah Anderson’s “Streetwise” tell us about race and crime Anderson argues that a code of informal rules and behaviors has emerged in disadvantaged communities as a way to survive and navigate challenging environments. There is a counterculture that encourages youth to go against the standards of the dominant culture, including gang violence, disrespecting authority, drinking, and excessive sexual activity. The film explores how marginalized groups are at greater risk of becoming deviant as a result of socioeconomic inequalities. Control Theory (from lecture): the idea that people are influenced by internal and external controls that prevent them from deviating from societal norms. Such controls include the threat of being grounded by your parents, the threat of going to jail, fear of going to Hell. We may also consider how personalities and psychological abnormalities may contribute to deviant behavior. Critics say that the theory fails to take into other factors, including the structure of society. People who commit murder, for example, may have strong bonds and have no psychological abnormalities. Stigma: When you are portrayed in a negative light based on certain characteristics. Physical: When people portray you negatively based on a physical defect. For example, an obese people may be perceived as "fatty". Moral: Stigma based on past or current moral failures. Ex: Being forced to register as a sex offender. Tribal: Native Americans may not want to seek mental health care for fear of being seen as a coward. “Passing” (in Managing Deviant Identities, textbook) Passing is a technique used to cope with being stigmatized. The method involves presenting yourself as if you belonged in a different group or culture. Think of this as "resigning” from a culture. Conflict theory and deviance, including issues of power and the relationship between deviance and capitalism (from lecture) Conflict theory, when applied to deviance, argues that those with power in society define what is considered deviant behavior, often creating laws and social norms that benefit their own interests, while disproportionately impacting the powerless. The powerless are more likely to be considered deviant. Within a capitalist system, conflict theorists argue that deviance is often a result of the inherent inequalities created by the economic structure, where the working class may engage in acts considered deviant as a response to their exploitation or limited opportunities. Crime Prophty: Arson, robbery, larceny Trends in violent crime and property crime rates in the U.S. over last 30 or so years: Per BJS, the U.S. violent and property crime rates each fell 71% between 1993 and 2022. While crime rates have fallen sharply over the long term, the decline hasn't always been steady. There have been notable increases in certain kinds of crime in some years, including recently. Sampson and Wilson: factors that may contribute to criminal activity According to Samson and Wilson: To the extent that a community is isolated from other communities, from mainstream social norms, and from outside resources, social and spatial isolation allows for the emergence of a cultural value system that legitimates, or at least tolerates, crime and delinquency. Such factors include: concentrated poverty, residential instability, high levels of unemployment, racial segregation, lack of social cohesion, and weak collective efficacy within a neighborhood. Female or male arrest rates declining faster? (Crime and demographics/gender in textbook - Messerschmidt) Males are more likely to be arrested than females. Men are also being arrested for more crimes than females, and male arrests. Although the numbers have declined for both genders, male crime rates decreased the fastest (23% male, 15% female). This is due to a hypothesis that once women gain power in the labor market through education and income, women would be more likely to commit crimes. Victor Rios’ “youth control complex” and “school to prison pipeline” (Criminal Justice System in textbook) Sociologist Victor Rios wrote about these issues in his work on juvenile juice. Youth Control Complex: Rios argues that the youth control complex is the result of a collaboration between many institutions, including schools, families, businesses, and the criminal justice system. The school-to-prison pipeline is the downward spiral that keeps young people stuck in a rut due to a lack of resources. Who goes to prison disproportionately (by race)? Black people are imprisoned at a disproportionately higher rate than white people in the United States. Goals of punishment: The goal of punishment is to hold offenders accountable by subjecting them to unpleasant consequences in order to deter them from committing a crime. The punishment is supposed to be severe enough that they will not do the crime again. Retribution: The right for society to get even with an offender (revenge, karma) Rehabilitation: Actively seeking to reform criminals in order to reduce the likelihood that the person will end up in legal trouble in the future. Deterrence: The punishment is meant to spark fear in order to steer them away from commiting the crime in the future. Societal protection: a set of programs and policies that aim to protect people from poverty, vulnerability, and social exclusion (ex. Social security, food stamps) "Open prisons” and criminal recidivism rates in Scandinavia Scandinavian countries have low recidivism rates, in part due to their use of open prisons, which are a key component of their reintegration process. These open prisons are very similar to college dorms. People can watch TV, eat with staff members, and visit family. The reintegration process includes moving prisoners down in security levels as their sentence progresses, and providing educational and normalization programs.