Chapter 2 The Emergence of the Three Kingdoms PDF

# Chapter 1 Of some three hundred and sixty areas of responsibility, including agriculture, allotted life spans, illness, punishment, and good and evil, and brought culture to his people. At that time a bear and a tiger living in the same cave prayed to Holy Hwanung to transform them into human b...

# Chapter 1 Of some three hundred and sixty areas of responsibility, including agriculture, allotted life spans, illness, punishment, and good and evil, and brought culture to his people. At that time a bear and a tiger living in the same cave prayed to Holy Hwanung to transform them into human beings. He gave them a bundle of sacred mugworts and twenty cloves of garlic and said, “If you eat these and shun the sunlight for one hundred days, you will assume human form." Both animals ate the species and avoided the sun. After twenty-one days the bear became a woman but the tiger, unable to observe the taboo, remained a tiger. Unable to find a husband, the bear-woman prayed under the altar tree for a child. Hwanung metamorphosed himself, lay with her, and begot a son called Tan'gun Wanggom. Tan'gun later was often considered the first Korean and/or founder of the first Korean state. This account goes on to say that in the “fiftieth year of the reign of Emperor Yao,” on a date calculated as October 3, 2333 BCE, Tan'gun was said to have established the state of Choson. This date has become a national holiday in South Korea. Koreans today often refer to the “5,000 years of Korean history,” a phrase based on this legendary date. –from the Samguk yusa 1:33–3419 # Chapter 2 ## The Emergence of the Three Kingdoms The Koguryo peoples, most probably a branch of the Puyo, were living in the Hun River basin just north of the Yalu from 75 BCE to 12 CE. The early Koguryo kingdom was more of a tribal federation than a centralized state. From 12 to 207 CE it was independent of China, and it was a formidable military power that conducted frequent raids on its neighbors. In 207, after suffering a series of retaliatory attacks by the Liaodong commandery, Koguryo relocated to the Yalu valley. Its leaders set up a stone-walled capital at Hwando (Chinese: Wandu) in the Tonggou region of what is now Jilin Province in Manchuria. From there the kingdom expanded to the mouth of the Yalu, gaining an access to the Yellow Sea. When China in the third century became divided into three rival dynasties, Koguryo carried out diplomatic relations with the southern dynastic rivals of the northern Chinese state of Wei. In retaliation the Wei state of north China destroyed the capital in 245. After disappearing from the historical record, Koguryo reemerged as a strong state during the reign of King Mich'on (reigned 300–330). The rise of Koguryo at this time coincides with the decline of Chinese power in the region, and the two are no doubt related. Koguryo's rise was probably aided by the fact that it was able to move into a power vacuum that existed at the time. Paekche emerged from the area of the Mahan in southwestern Korea. According to tradition, it was founded in 18 BCE by the two sons of Chumong, Onjo and Piryu, who were given some land by the Lord of Mahan. Onjo then became the first king of this new state, and his descendants ruled until 660 when the last king, Ŭija, was defeated by his Silla rivals and their Chinese allies. The foundation legend places the founding of Paekche much too early; nonetheless, many historians assume that Paekche grew out of one of the fifty-four guo mentioned in the Sanguozhi, although the ruling family may have been of Manchurian Puyõ origin. Evidence suggests that there may have been a migration into the Mahan region by some Puyo or related Manchurian peoples; however, the links between the Paekche and Puyo are not well understood. Whatever its origins, unlike Koguryo, Paekche appears rather suddenly in the historical records with the reign of Kunch'ogo (r. 346–375), who ruled a state that inaugurated diplomatic relations with the Chinese state of Jin in 372. The first capital of Paekche was Hansõng, believed to have been in the Han River area. This served as the capital until 474. The inhabitants of Paekche were probably ethnically and linguistically Han and thus more closely related to the people of Silla and Kaya than to Koguryo or Puyo. But it is hard to untangle the ethnic and tribal links between the peoples within the peninsula and the peoples in Manchuria and the Japanese archipelago at this time. ## The Period of the Three Kingdoms, 4th Century to 676 The emergence of the Paekche kingdom coincides with the crumbling of Chinese power in Northeast Asia. The Chinese appear to have conducted a divide-and-rule policy in the peninsula, bestowing honors and status on local chieftains but intimidating them from extending their power. The collapse of Chinese authority led to a power vacuum, in which indigenous polities were left to contend for mastery of the region. In the decades after 290, when the Chinese position in Korea began to decline, consolidation of Korean states proceeded rapidly, with Koguryo in the north making a strong revival after 300. Quite possibly the rise of Paekche begins at this time as well. Located in the southeastern part of the peninsula farthest from direct contact with China, Silla was last to receive influences from the continent, and its institutional development showed a time lag compared with Koguryo and Paekche. But Silla was the state that unified most of the Korean peninsula and whose language, customs, and institutions dominated the subsequent historical development of Korean society and culture. The Silla state began in the Kyongju basin, a small fertile area sheltered by surrounding hills. The nucleus of the state was Saro, one of the twelve Chinhan guo. According to tradition, Silla was founded in 57 BCE by Pak Hyökköse, who was miraculously born from an egg. His name Pak was perhaps derived from palk, meaning “bright,” since sunlight shone from his body. In the recorded legend, Saro prior to Pak had been made up of six villages. It was their headmen who unanimously chose this strange youth as their leader. Subsequently, the villages were under his united rule. The date 57 BCE is far too early for the likely founding of the Silla state. It is of symbolic importance for later Silla historians who established this traditional chronology because it makes their state older than its two neighbors. The date itself is derived by counting back twelve sixty-year cycles (these cycles were the principal unit of measuring years in East Asia) from 663 CE, the year that Paekche was finally destroyed. The legend does suggest that Saro was formed by a voluntary union of the six villages/descent groups: Kumyang, Saryang, Ponp'i, Maryang, Hanji, and the Supp'i. The Pak kings came from the Kumyang, and the queens, starting with Pak Hyökköse's bride, Aryõng, came from the Sary-ang. This legend would appear to hint that the founder of Saro or at least its first major ruler was an outsider, since he arrived mysteriously when an egg was discovered. His supernatural birth could also be a means of justifying the elevated status of the later rulers of Silla, since they could lay claim to being descendents of no ordinary men. The Paks, however, were not the sole ruling family, for the Sök and the Kim families supplied rulers as well. The Sök founder was also born from an egg and is reported to have come from the east coast. When in the fourth century Silla emerges as a fully historical state, the ruling family was from the Kim ## The Period of the Three Kingdoms, 4th Century to 676 descent group and would remain so until the tenth century. Several million Koreans today claim membership in this royal Kim descent group (the Kyongju Kim). The Kim rulers chose their consorts from the Pak family. The first fully documented ruler of Silla was Naemul (r. 356–402), who held the title of maripkan, a word that denotes an elevated ridge.5 In 377, Silla is recorded as having sent envoys who accompanied a Koguryo embassy to the former Qin rulers of northern China. It is not clear, however, how far state development had proceeded in Silla at this time, or to what extent it ruled or dominated the former Chinhan territories. The adoption of a new title (previous Silla rulers are said to have called themselves isagŭm, "successor princes"), and its active role in international politics, would suggest that Silla was undergoing a new phase in its history. Most probably Silla was still in the process of completing its consolidation of the former Chinhan guo in the late fourth century. As it did so, it began associating itself with Koguryo and competing with Paekche and the Kaya states for mastery of the entire Samhan region, roughly the region that makes up what is now South Korea. The fourth century also saw the emergence of a loose federation of small states collectively known as Kaya. The Kaya states may have evolved out of the Pyönhan peoples who inhabited the fertile middle and lower Naktong basin and the southeast coast. They actively engaged in commerce and iron production. Despite their prosperity and apparent commercial sophistication, the Kaya states were never consolidated into a large kingdom. The price they paid for this was their gradual annexation and absorption by Silla. Yet, Kaya had a distinctive culture that exerted considerable influence on its neighbors, as illustrated by its pottery, which became the basis for both Silla pottery and Japanese sue ware, as well as the kayagŭm, a kind of zither that is still one of the most popular of traditional Korean musical instruments. There were six main loosely confederated Kaya polities. The two most important were Pon Kaya (Original Kaya) and Tae Kaya (Greater Kaya). Pon Kaya, also known as Kumgwan Kaya, was located near Kimhae. Iron slags dating to at least the first century BCE testify to the long importance of this area as a center of commerce and industry. Tae Kaya was located in the rich farmlands of the middle Naktong River valley. The origins of the Kaya states are best known from the eleventh-century work Karak kukki. In the legend it records, the kings of the Kaya states emerged from golden eggs that descended from heaven to Mount Kuji (Turtle Mountain) during a festival. This occurred as local chieftains sang a song about a turtle at the command of a strange voice from the mountain. As with Silla, we have dynastic founders emerging from supernatural origins (eggs again). The Kaya had close connections with the Wa of Japan, probably involving trade based on the Kaya area's rich ## The Period of the Three Kingdoms, 4th Century to 676 iron deposits. Recent archaeological excavations of the royal tombs of Tae Kaya reveal a wealthy state. The size of the mounded tombs and the considerable wealth of the royal family indicate a highly developed society where the kings were not merely local chieftains but rulers of exalted status with considerable power to command labor and resources.” The fertile rice land, the existence of iron deposits, and its location on an ancient trade route that reached from central Japan to northern China were the sources of this wealth. Despite their prosperity, the Kaya states were too small to remain viable political entities. Consequently, they fell victim to an expanding Silla that absorbed Pon Kaya in 532 and Tae Kaya in 562. ## The Wa and the Mimana Another political presence in fourth-century Korea was the Wa. If little is known for certain about the formation of states in Korea before the late fourth century, even less is known about what transpired in Japan. The peoples of Japan were an important factor in northeast Asian politics even in this early period, yet information about them is sparse and almost anything that is said is bound to be caught up in controversy. Both the Japanese and Korean peoples are proud of their uniqueness and concerned about their origins. Furthermore, the bitter legacy of Japan's twentieth-century conquest of Korea has made the study of the relationship between the two peoples an emotionally laden topic. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries Japanese expansionists cited the evidence that Wa peoples were in Korea to support their claims that in ancient times Korea was ruled by Japan. Much of this was based on the existence of the territory of Mimana, also identified with Kaya. According to the eighth-century Japanese history Nihon shoki (The Chronicles of Japan), Empress Jingu in the fourth century conquered a region in southern Korea and set up the Mimana territory, which was administered by a Japanese official. Later the territory was turned over to Yamato's ally Paekche and then lost to Silla. Japanese imperialists used this historical claim to justify imperialist expansion into the peninsula. When the Japanese annexed Korea in 1910 they could claim to be "restoring" the ancient unity of the two countries. Most historians today regard the story of Empress Jingu's conquests with skepticism, and many question whether Mimana ever existed at all. Some scholars have suggested that rather than Japanese peoples conquering Korea, horse riders from the peninsula invaded and subdued the peoples of Japan. The "horse rider theory" has been used to account for the appearance of weapons, armor, and tomb decorations found in Japan from the fourth and fifth century that are similar to those found in Korea. More likely, the peoples on both sides of the Korea Straits were related and interacted with each other. ## The Period of the Three Kingdoms, 4th Century to 676 Evidence suggests that between 300 BCE. and 300 CE large numbers of peoples migrated from the Korean Peninsula to the Japanese archipelago, where they introduced rice agriculture, bronze and iron working, and other technologies. Thus rather than the existence of Korean and Japanese peoples there was a continuum of peoples and cultures. The Wa of western Japan, for example, may have lived on both sides of the Korean Straits, and they appeared to have close links with Kaya. It is even possible that the Wa and Kaya were the same ethnic group. The fact that Japanese and Korean political evolution followed similar patterns is too striking to be coincidental. On both sides of the straits the collapse of Chinese authority at the end of the third century and in the early fourth century was followed by the formation of large and durable states. In Japan the rise of Yamato apparently began during or shortly after the formation of the three kingdoms. Its rise was probably related to influences, and possibly migrations, from the peninsula. Northeast Asia formed an interacting and intermingling complex of peoples and cultures. The task of historians to sort out the links and patterns within this complex has been made more difficult by the strong nationalist sentiments that prevail in the region today, and by the tendency to project modern notions of national and ethnic identity anachronistically onto these early times. Thus, by the second half of the fourth century a number of clearly defined states emerged. These are no longer tribal units or chiefdoms but strong centralized states that were ruled by kings who governed through administrative officials and who were cut off from ordinary subjects by their supernatural origins and their exalted status. They possessed considerable territory and something else as well: literacy. For in the confusion that entailed the fourth-century collapse of Chinese authority north of the Yangzi River valley, Chinese scribes and officials found their way into the courts of these "barbarian" states. They supplied a veneer of sinicization (Chinese cultural influence) as they tutored their masters in the use of Chinese characters, a development that would ensure that these newly rising states and their successors would have the means of sophisticated recordkeeping that is needed by advanced civilizations. The use of Chinese characters as the basic form of writing also meant that the Korean people would be linked by a shared written medium with the civilization of China. ## Korea and Northeast Asia ## In the fourth and fifth centuries The fourth-century events of the Korean peninsula developed in the larger context of Northeast Asia and beyond. For reasons that historians ## The Period of the Three Kingdoms, 4th Century to 676 are still trying to determine, the fourth century was a period of profound upheavals in much of Eurasia. In Europe, the Roman Empire, weakened by demographic and economic decline, split into two halves, abandoned its traditional panoply of gods, and adopted a new religion of other-worldly salvation: Christianity. In the next century it saw its western half crumble and lapse into semibarbarism. The other great Eurasian empire, the Chinese, similarly went into economic and military decline and saw half its empire, the northern half, collapse under the strain of nomadic invaders who, like their European equivalents, set up a number of ephemeral semibarbarian successor states. And the Chinese too accepted a foreign religion of otherworldly salvation: Buddhism. The collapse of the Chinese imperial authority in the north gave the peninsular peoples breathing space for purely indigenous forces to come into play; this led to the rise of large-scale centralized native states. The process was assisted by the diaspora of Chinese who, fleeing turmoil in north China or its Northeast Asian commanderies, took refuge in the newly emerging Korean kingdoms. Korean rulers, in turn, sought the skills of the Chinese as a means of strengthening their own states. Although there was no direct Chinese intervention into Korea for several centuries, all three states sought trade and diplomatic support from the various states of divided China during this period. They were also greatly influenced by Chinese culture. The chief avenue for Chinese influences was Buddhism. Buddhist missionaries from China converted all three kingdoms. In 372, the former Qin sent a monk, Sõndo, to introduce Buddhism to the Koguryo court, and Buddhism became a state religion. Buddhism was adopted by Paekche in 384 when the Jin state of China sent the Indian monk Marananda to the Paekche court. In more remote Silla, another century and a half would pass before the rulers converted to Buddhism. Koguryo was a Manchurian-based power that moved into the peninsula in the fifth century. Under Kwanggaeto (r. 391-413), Koguryo won an impressive series of victories known chiefly through the Kwanggaet'o Inscription, a stele put up by his son and successor Changsu (r. 413-491) in 414 to commemorate his father's achievements. This is the earliest dated Korean inscription. Kwanggaeto defeated the Murong tribal people that had emerged as a power in Manchuria; expanded his domain to the Liao River; conquered the Yilou, a tribal people in the northeast; and captured 64 walled towns and 1,400 villages. He also boasted of inflicting a defeat on the Wa. Kwanggaet'o, whose name means "broad expander of the realm," took on a reign name, Yongnak ("Eternal Rejoicing"), an act that symbolically placed him on terms of equality with the rulers of China, since in Chinese practice only the Chinese emperor could hold a reign title. His successor, Changsu (“Longed Lived"), moved the Koguryo capital from the Yalu to P'yongyang on the Taedong River in 427, and ## The Period of the Three Kingdoms, 4th Century to 676 thus planted the center of the kingdom firmly in the Korean peninsula. This provided Koguryo with a large area of fertile rice lands as a reliable economic base. Changsu continued to press southward, and in 474 Paekche was forced to move its capital from Hansong on the Han River south to Ungjin (modern Kongju) in the Chungch'õng region. Koguryo then gained control of the Han River basin. The expansion of Koguryo threatened the survival of the southern states and led to the alliance between Paekche and Silla in 433. The next 120 years was largely the drama of Paekche and Silla fighting the attempts at further southern encroachments by Koguryo. Despite this alliance, Paekche, which experienced the main brunt of the Koguryo advance, suffered a series of setbacks, including the death of King Kaero (r. 455–474) in battle as Changsu took Hansong. But by the sixth century it was Silla that began to go on the offensive. The period from the middle sixth century until 676 saw Silla's emergence as master of the Korean peninsula. ## Culture and Society of the Three Kingdoms During the period from the late fourth to the mid-fifth century, a process of political and cultural change occurred in each of the Three Kingdoms. Selectively borrowing from the states that ruled China, the Korean states carried out administrative reforms, adopted Buddhism as a state-protective cult, and acquired bits of Chinese cultural forms and learning. Chinese models were adopted because these were the only models of state organization available to the peoples of the region. These proved useful to the growth of state power and appealed to the elites as forms of cultural enrichment. Yet Chinese culture was introduced to Korea at a time when China itself was politically weak and divided and much of the northern heartland was ruled by alien dynasties of Inner Asian origin. Chinese states were useful sources of cultural ideas and practices, but during this period of political disunity in China they were not in a position to threaten the existence of the Korean states. Nor was there any great empire with universalistic pretensions and the ability to dazzle its neighbors with cultural brilliance or intimidate them with military might. As a result, the process of state building during the Three Kingdoms period was largely an indigenous development, and Chinese cultural borrowing was done on a purely voluntarily basis. A process of sinicization occurred, but the native institutions and cultural forms were still dominant in this period. Another feature of this time was the armored mounted warrior. In East Asia, the appearance of these horse-riding warriors with coats of bone or iron, similar to the medieval knights of the West, began around the fourth and fifth centuries. Impressive bone armor has been discovered ## The Period of the Three Kingdoms, 4th Century to 676 in Paekche and elaborate iron armor has been uncovered in Kaya dating from at least the fifth century. 10 Surviving depictions of Korean warriors show them formidably outfitted in armor and deer antler helmets. Armored warriors fought for all three kingdoms, and this style of warfare spread to Japan, where it formed the basis for the elaborately attired horse warrior of medieval Japanese samurai lore. The earliest of these three kingdoms, Koguryo, was a society dominated by a warrior aristocracy. Rulers and high-ranking nobility built elaborate tombs during this time, which are one of the main sources of information about this period. Most of Koguryo's tombs have been looted, but tomb paintings provide some information about this society. One of the best-known of these is the Ssangyong-ch'ong (Tomb of the Twin Pillars) that depicts broad streets, and rouge-faced ladies dressed in skirts and three-quarter-length coats engaged in conversation with upper-class men. Other tombs show hunters, mounted archers, dancers, and wrestlers engaged in what appears to be an early form of ssirŭm, Korean-style wrestling. Paintings show people in the kinds of activity expected to be found in a warrior aristocracy: horse-riding, hunting, vigorous sports, and warfare. This artistic style, so different from later Korean art, shows less Chinese influence; instead it shares more traits with the art of the peoples of Central Asia, Manchuria, and Siberia. The murals, such as those in the Tomb of the Four Spirits in South P'yongyang Province, which contains pictures of a dragon, tiger, phoenix, tortoise, and snake, were probably of religious and cosmological significance. Interestingly, tomb paintings show little Buddhist influence. The name of one Koguryo artist, Tamjing, who went to Japan, has been recorded, but generally the producers of some of the most splendid works of art in Korean history are anonymous. The Koguryo are recorded to have been fond of music and dance. The most renowned of Koguryo musicians was Wang San-ak, master of the hyõnhakkŭm (black crane zither), a modified Chinese seven-string instrument. Buddhism was the official state religion, but its influence on Koguryo society was initially limited as indicated by the tomb murals. By the sixth century, however, the dominant Vinaya (Rules) school of Buddhism had become a major institution that provided learned advisors to Koguryo rulers. In the sixth century, Koguryo was able to act as a point of dispersal for the spread of Buddhism. In 551, a Koguryo monk was appointed by the king of Silla to head that kingdom's monastic organization, and in 594, the monk Hyeja went to Japan, where he became an advisor to Prince Shōtoku (573–621). A generation later, in 628, the monk Hyegwan introduced the important Samnon (Three Treatises; Japanese: Sanron) school of Buddhist philosophy to Japan. No Koguryo Buddhist temples have survived, but a gilt bronze statue of Tathagata Buddha and a gilt ## The Period of the Three Kingdoms, 4th Century to 676 bronze half-seated Maitreya testify to the high level of Buddhist art that flourished by the sixth century. Koguryo gradually adopted elements of Chinese culture in a pattern that Paekche and Silla repeated. To promote learning and train government clerks, an official academy, the T'aehak, was established in 372, where the curriculum included the study of Confucian learning. This is the first known center where Confucianism was studied in Korea. The Han histories Shiji and Hanshu (Book of Former Han) were studied as well as the Chinese literary anthology the Wenxuan (Literary Selections). Knowledge of the Chinese literary tradition may not have been very deep or profound, but the aristocratic class had some exposure to it. Little is known of the popular religion or customs except that the tenth lunar month was a time of harvest festivals, as it was in all three kingdoms. Although the aristocracy practiced Buddhism, it probably remained only a marginal part of the spiritual life of the people, who sought shamans rather than monks when dealing with the supernatural. One Koguryo institution worthy of notice was the kyõngdang, communal bodies of unmarried men, presumably of aristocratic background, who were organized in each locality, trained in archery, and given instruction in Chinese texts. Paekche, too, was a state dominated by a warrior aristocracy and a monarch who had by the end of the fourth century developed a centralized administration. As with the case of Koguryo, much of what we know of Paekche culture comes from the tombs of Paekche rulers and high-born aristocrats. Paekche tombs show a strong affinity with those of Koguryo that may be due to the fact that both were derived from the Puyo or perhaps from the geographic proximity of Paekche to Koguryo. By the fifth century, large mounded tombs with horizontal passageways leading to stone-walled high-ceilinged burial chambers were constructed. Since these proved rather easy to pillage, the contents have long since been looted. The discovery of the undisturbed Tomb of Muryong (r. 501-523) in the 1970s near Kongju, however, provides a glimpse of the splendid and refined culture of the Paekche kingdom. The tomb murals are more refined and less animated than those of Koguryo. They were a product of a gentle culture more removed from the rough nomadic influences of Manchuria and Central Asia and in closer contact with the maritime courts of southern China. Paekche bronzes, with their thin, elongated bodies, are perhaps the most famous product of the kingdom's artistic tradition. The best example is the Kudara (Paekche) Kannon in the Hōryūji Temple in Nara, Japan. The cultural high point of Paekche is considered the reign of King Song (r. 523-553). It was at this time that the famous Paekche mission to Japan took place (either in 538 or 552) that has traditionally been credited with introducing Buddhism to that country. ## The Period of the Three Kingdoms, 4th Century to 676 Buddhism played the same role in Paekche as it did in Koguryo, as a state-protective cult patronized by the court. The most influential form of Buddhism before the seventh century was Vinaya, which emphasized monastic discipline and, as its meaning ("rules") implies, systematic organization. The Vinaya-trained monks offered an array of practical information about administration, law, and systematic procedure as well as knowledge of literacy and the traditions of other lands. This was a valuable aid to early Korean rulers as they attempted to consolidate their rule and strengthen their states. Our knowledge of Buddhist architecture in the Three Kingdoms period is limited, but we do know that Paekche pagodas were highly regarded in medieval times. Of the many Buddhist temples that must have dotted the landscape only a few stone pagodas remain; the most famous was the Nine Story Wooden Pagoda of the master craftsman Abiji that was destroyed by the Mongol invasion in the thirteenth century. As with Koguryo, it is questionable how deeply the influence of Buddhism penetrated among the peasant majority, but at least among the court it was profound. Paekche king Pop (r. 599–600) went so far as to ban killing animals and hunting. He ordered the release of all domestic animals and the destruction of hunting weapons. Not surprisingly, he was soon deposed. It is clear, however, that by the end of the fifth century Buddhism as a way of life was being taken seriously by some. Although the last to emerge in recorded annals, Silla is today the best known of the Three Kingdoms, for it was Silla that unified the peninsula and implanted its language and culture as the dominant element in the evolution of Korea. Most of our knowledge of this period comes from histories written by later historians who saw themselves as heirs to the Sillan tradition. As a result, there is an inherent pro-Silla bias in most Korean history. Also, because Silla became the dominant power, its traditions have been best preserved and have served as the models for later Koreans. Thus more is known about Silla and its culture than of Paekche and Koguryo. It would be wrong, however, to regard Silla as the most advanced of the states; rather the opposite is closer to the truth. Archaeological evidence suggests that Silla, tucked in the southeast corner of the Korean peninsula out of direct contact with the East Asian heartland, developed somewhat later than Koguryo and Paekche in terms of social stratification, the creation of institutions of a centralized state, and the adoption of literacy. And it maintained its indigenous cultural traditions longer. Compared to Koguryo, Silla was very much a latecomer as an organized state, and compared to Paekche, Sillan culture was less refined and sophisticated. Yet this does not mean that Silla remained a primitive backwater, for it developed into one of the medieval world's more sophisticated societies. Its cultural legacy, which can be seen today in ## The Period of the Three Kingdoms, 4th Century to 676 the museums of South Korea, is impressive by any standard. The Sillan mounded tombs, a prominent feature of modern Kyōngju, differed somewhat in their design from Koguryo and Paekche mounded tombs.11 This indicates the cultural autonomy of Silla, which appears in general to show less pronounced Manchurian influences. These tombs were less easy to loot, and as a result, vast cultural treasures have survived to the present. Not all tombs have been opened by modern archaeologists, but those that have reveal a splendid artistic heritage. As with Paekche and Koguryo, a major theme in the early history of Silla was the emergence of a centralized monarchical state. The concept of kingship had to contend with strong local, tribal, and aristocratic traditions. Buddhism was important in strengthening the power of the early kings. Under Põphũng (r. 514–540) Silla adopted Buddhism. Silla resisted the alien religion long after Buddhism had been accepted in Koguryo and Paekche, a testimony to the comparative remoteness of the state and the strength of its indigenous culture. In 527, a noble, Ich'adon, was martyred for his beliefs. According to later tradition, a set of miracles followed this event and the Silla king converted to Buddhism, adopted the name Põphũng ("rising of the dharma"), and officially sponsored the new faith. Buddhism was initiated by the Silla monarchs, as it provided a source of religious sanction to the monarchy and an impressive ritual tradition that when closely aligned with its royal patrons served to greatly enhance the majesty and prestige of the royal house and of the state. In Silla, Buddhism would retain a close association with the state. Silla kings borrowed Chinese institutional practices to add to their power and prestige. Põphũng's reign also saw the first code of administrative law, issued in 520. The content of this code is unknown, but it is believed to have included a seventeen-grade official rank system with different ranks distinguished by distinctive attire. The kolp'um, or bone-rank system, the basis of Silla's social structure, may have been formalized around this time. To further add to monarchical prestige Põphũng in 536 took on an independent era name, “Kõnwon” (Initiated Beginning). In the Chinese tradition, an era name was given only to the emperor and it signified his role as a mediator between heaven and earth. An era name by a ruler other than the Chinese emperor was a declaration of equality. In times when China was united and strong this would be a direct challenge to the authority of the Chinese emperor. At this time, of course, China was politically divided; nevertheless, the adoption of an era name was at the very least a sign of the growing influence of Chinese culture and the pretensions of the Silla monarchs. Põphũng expanded his domain by conquering Pon Kaya, the largest of the Kaya states, in 532. His successor, Chinhũng (r. 540–576), expanded the state further, making Silla a serious contender for control of the ## The Period of the Three Kingdoms, 4th Century to 676 entire peninsula. With Silla's ally Paekche, Chinhung launched an invasion of the Han River basin during the years from 551 to 554. Under his general Köch'ilbu, the Silla forces and their Paekche allies were successful in driving Koguryo out of the Han valley. Then turning against his erstwhile partner and severing a 120-year alliance, Chinhung attacked Paekche, whose King Sõng perished at the battle of Kwansan in 554. The Han River basin was now part of the Silla state. This gave Silla access to the Yellow Sea and brought Silla into direct contact with China. It also separated Paekche from Koguryõ, making cooperation between the two states more difficult. Perhaps most importantly, the Han River basin with its rich farmlands and its iron deposits enriched the kingdom. Chinhũng then conquered Tae Kaya in 562, ending the independent existence of the Kaya states and bringing the entire Naktong valley under Sillan control. This step excluded direct Japanese influence in Korea for over 1,000 years. Silla forces then invaded the former territory of the Okchõ along the Hamgyong coast, inflicting another defeat on Koguryo. Chinhũng celebrated his military triumphs by erecting what are known as the Four Chinhũng Stelae. These were placed at strategic points in his domain at Chungnyõng Pass, at Pukhansan in north Seoul, and in the Hwangch'o and Maullyong passes in Hamgyong Province and have survived to the present, providing us with among the earliest Sillan written documents. ## The Bone-Ranks, The Hwabaek, and the Hwarang Silla's strength was drawn in part from its three prominent social and political institutions: the bone-rank system, the Hwabaek (Council of Notables), and the hwarang (flower boys). The kolp'um (bone-rank) was a system of hierarchical ranks in Silla corresponding to hereditary bloodlines. Each rank conferred a variety of special privileges such as qualification for office or the right to possess certain kinds of material goods. 12 The two top bone-ranks were the sõnggol (sacred bone), which was confined to the main branch of the royal Kim descent group, and the chin'gol (true bone), whose members were the cadet branches of the royal family, perhaps members of the Pak and Sok royal consort families, and the royal house of Pon Kaya. These made up the highest level of the aristocracy. Originally the chin'gol may have been formed by those lineages that were related to the royal family through marriage and were probably expanded to include the Kaya royal descent group that was absorbed into the bone-rank system. The chin'gol held the highest offices and served on the Hwabaek council. The sõnggol line, however, died out when King Chinp'yong left no male heir and was succeeded by his daughter Söndök (r. 632-647) and her female cousin Chindök (r. 647–654). Thereafter the royal family was ## The Period of the Three Kingdoms, 4th Century to 676 drawn from the chin'gol line. The name sõnggol, which can be translated as "hallowed" or "sacred,” implies a sacred or priestly authority for the Silla kings, a role that is also hinted at by the term ch'ach'aung, used by an early ruler and believed to refer to a shaman or priest. It is possible that the Silla royal line may have been evolving in a pattern similar to the imperial line of the Yamato in Japan, where the ruling family took on a sacerdotal (priestly) function. With the extinction of the royal line, the Silla kings became merely first among chin'gol equals. Silla kings after 654 were frequently challenged by powerful aristocrats, their throne never entirely secure. The extinction of the sacred bone line then may have been a factor contributing to the less exalted status of the Silla and later Korean kings. Throughout Korean history, the position of the monarch was more humble than in many premodern Asian societies. Beneath the two bone-ranks was a system of tup'um (head-ranks), of which there were theoretically six; but only the head-ranks six