Health Promotion Module-1 PDF

Module -1 Health Promotion 1.1 a) Life Skills -Hygienic Behavior b) Types of infectious diseases c) Signs and symptoms of infectious diseases 1.2 Hygienic habits What is hygiene? The word “hygiene” is derived from the Greek word “hygieinos” which means healthful, or relating to health. According to...

Module -1 Health Promotion 1.1 a) Life Skills -Hygienic Behavior b) Types of infectious diseases c) Signs and symptoms of infectious diseases 1.2 Hygienic habits What is hygiene? The word “hygiene” is derived from the Greek word “hygieinos” which means healthful, or relating to health. According to the World Health Organization, "Hygiene refers to conditions and practices that help to maintain health and prevent the spread of diseases." Hygiene is the practice of keeping yourself and your surroundings clean, especially in order to prevent illness or the spread of diseases. Good hygiene is a barrier to many contagious diseases, including fecal-oral diseases. It plays an important role in promoting better health and well-being. Difference between hygiene and sanitation Since health is wealth, it is important to know what sets apart the terms hygiene and sanitation, as these terms are both health-related. The word hygiene mainly focuses on diseases and health, while sanitation focuses on the safe disposal of human waste, which could be human urine and feces. However, both hygiene and sanitation aim at creating a disease-free world that is full of healthy people. Types of hygiene Personal hygiene Environmental hygiene Domestic hygiene Food hygiene Personal Hygiene Personal hygiene, which involves the cleanliness of one’s body and clothing, proper living habits, healthy diet, rest, and exercise, basically means cleanliness of your body. Good personal hygiene means keeping all parts of the physical body clean and healthy. It is an essential part of maintaining both physical and mental health. In people who practice poor personal hygiene, the body offers a perfect environment for the growth of germs, hence leaving it vulnerable to infection. The main goal of personal hygiene is to improve or enhance personal standards of cleanliness, within people’s living conditions. Some of the personal hygiene practices include bathing, washing clothes, washing hands, proper use of the toilet, caring for the teeth, nails, feet, personal grooming, maintaining good practices when either spitting, sneezing, or coughing, and inculcating clean habits at a young age. On a social level, people tend to avoid a person with poor personal hygiene, hence resulting in isolation and loneliness. Environmental hygiene The aim of environmental hygiene is to create safe spaces so as to prevent diseases. In general, environmental hygiene involves disinfection activities (to control the harmful organisms and bacteria that threaten health), rodent control, disinfestation, and fumigation activities (pest control, gaseous pesticides). This way, children and other people who use the same street are prevented from falling ill due to exposure to such waste. Environmental hygiene takes care of the health of both current and future generations. Domestic hygiene Domestic hygiene which involves cleanliness, the sanitary preparation of food, and ventilation, generally means cleanliness in homes. Domestic hygiene practices include all the work done to keep people’s clothes, beddings, and houses clean. These activities include washing clothes and beddings, cleaning the toilet, sweeping and cleaning floors, and washing dishes after meals. It is important to keep the house clean so that it remains a healthy place. In the case where the house and things in it are not often cleaned, dirt and moisture accumulate, making the house ideal for the breeding of parasites, germs, and disease-carrying animals. These germs can cause infection or sickness to the people living in the house. Domestic hygiene also entails the use of soap, proper ventilation, fresh air, hygiene in food storage, proper waste disposal, and keeping away household pests, rats, and insects. Food hygiene One of the greatest risks to the health of a population is contaminated food. It is a leading cause of disease outbreaks and transmission. Food that is kept for too long contains pathogens or toxic chemicals whereas foodstuffs that are consumed raw, such as vegetables and fruits, can get contaminated by flies, dirty hands, or unclean water. Food that has been improperly prepared can also lead to chemical poisoning. To promote good health, food should be prepared and stored properly. Any facility where food is prepared or served for public consumption must adhere to the set hygiene practices by health regulating agencies. These systems are put in place to regulate the general environment where food is prepared, the methods used to prepare and serve it, how the food is stored, and the personal employee hygiene standards. Required equipment for food hygiene includes stainless steel surfaces for the preparation of food and cooking utensils. These regulations also include specific standards for water and food temperatures and the required sanitation systems for disinfecting and cleaning utensils and surfaces. What are infectious diseases? Infectious diseases are illnesses caused by harmful organisms (pathogens) that get into your body from the outside. Pathogens that cause infectious diseases are viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasites. One can get infectious diseases from other people, bug bites and contaminated food, water or soil. What’s the difference between infectious diseases and noninfectious diseases? Infectious diseases are caused by harmful organisms that get into your body from the outside, like viruses and bacteria. Noninfectious diseases aren’t caused by outside organisms, but by genetics, anatomical differences, getting older and the environment you live in. You can’t get noninfectious diseases from other people, by getting a bug bite or from your food. The flu, measles, HIV, strep throat, COVID-19 and salmonella are all examples of infectious diseases. Cancer, diabetes, congestive heart failure and Alzheimer’s disease are all examples of noninfectious diseases. There are 4 different categories of infection agents are bacteria, virus, fungi, and parasites. 1. Bacteria- They are free living organisms who are unicellular and they are prokaryotic (cells with simple internal structure and no nucleus). Though there is no nucleus it contains DNA within a nucleus like region called the nucleoid. Because the cell structure is simple, most bacteria reproduce quickly. How bacteria causes disease? Bacteria enter the human host in a variety of methods. The pathogen can physically enter through the mouth, eyes, nose, genitalia, and open wounds, and can be transmitted via airborne droplets, bodily fluids, and skin on skin contact. Once bacteria enters the system, they begin to multiply rapidly. In some cases, such as with the bacteria Salmonella typhi (typhoid), the disease is caused when the bacteria die and secrete toxins that are poisonous to humans. In other cases the bacteria settle in the lungs, kidney, spine, or brain and attack the tissue. TB grows in the lungs where it then enters the bloodstream and spreads throughout the body. Treatment for Bacterial Infection  Antibiotics - also known as antibacterials, antibiotics suppress the serious infection by attacking the cell walls of bacteria. Once the cell wall is compromised the bacteria cells can't survive in the human body.  Vaccines - Vaccines are a preventive measure that allow the body to create antibodies prior to being infected by the bacteria, allowing the healthy immune system to easily fight them off and become familiar with the disease.  Viral infections and bacterial infections are often confused. Main difference is bacteria are living organisms, viruses are not. 2. Virus - They are fragments of nucleic acid that are packaged together in a protein. These proteins ( viruses) enter through the cell wall of a healthy individual and use the cells replication systems to reproduce. How do viruses cause disease? Once a virus enters a healthy cell, it is invisible to the antibodies which circulate the bloodstream. Thus, a different mechanism is needed to identify infected cells and eliminate them. This is done with the help of the molecule class I major histocompatibility complex proteins (MHC class I ). MHC class I proteins encode the contents of the cell's insides and then present that information externally. Part of the virus protein is encoded and can be detected by T cells. Once the T cell has identified an infected cell it releases cytotoxic factors ( meaning toxic to cells) that kill the cell. The invading virus can then no longer use the cell to replicate. Treatment for Viral Infection Viruses are harder to treat than bacterial infections. This reflects how viruses operate. To kill a virus, the cell where it is hiding has to be identified and eliminated. But no current medicines can do both of these processes simultaneously. Instead there are 2 major treatment options available.  Antivirals - While antibacterial drugs attack and kill bacteria, antiviral drugs do not attack and kill viruses. Instead, they identify which cell is infected and then contain the virus within the cell, preventing it from reproducing. Because of its inefficient methodology, antivirals typically only work when there are a few infected cells. It is recommended that antiviral medications are taken 24 hours from the first sign of disease  Vaccines - The vaccines for viral infections work similar to those for bacterial infections. A weakened form of the virus is injected into the body inorder to prepare the immune system to detect and fight the virus. 3. Fungi - They are typically found on dead or rotten matter ( plant and animal) and exist in one of the 2 types of cells : yeast cells or mold cells.  Yeast fungi - Scientists have discovered 1500 species of these single cell fungi. They're found worldwide on plants, in soil, and in sugary mediums such as fruit. These fungi are the types of yeast that make bread grow and beer and wine alcoholic.  Mold fungi - Mold is made up of multicellular filaments called hyphae. They are found on rotting plant and animal matter. Treatment for fungal infection Certain types of both mold and yeast cells are capable of causing devastating infectious diseases in people. These disease are called mycoses, common ones being -  Histoplasmosis - It is an infection caused by breathing in spores of a fungus often found in bird and bat droppings.  Coccidioidomycosis - The coccidioides fungus is found in soil and causes infection when inhaled.   Blastomycosis - It is a fungus that lives in the environment, particularly in moist soil and in decomposing matter such as wood and leaves. The treatment for the infected person is a combination of antibiotics and antifungals. Antifungals work similarly to antibiotics. 4. Parasites - They are living organisms that benefit from attaching to a host, at the detriment to the host itself. Common parasites include everything from malaria to tapeworm. One can become prone to developing a parasitic infection because parasites will often lay eggs in the host undetected. Only once the eggs hatch is when symptoms of disease arise. Treatment for Parasitic Infections Some drugs which are used - Artesunate, Melarsoprol, Nifurtimox, Suramin, etc. These drugs attempt to break down the DNA commonly found in parasitic agents. Signs and symptoms of infectious diseases A symptom is a manifestation of disease apparent to the patient himself, while a sign is a manifestation of disease that the physician perceives. The sign is objective evidence of disease; a symptom, subjective. Symptoms represent the complaints of the patient, and if severe, they drive him to the doctor's office. Symptoms Each infectious disease has its own specific signs and symptoms. General signs and symptoms common to a number of infectious diseases include: Fever Diarrhea Fatigue Muscle aches Coughing Seek medical attention if you: Have been bitten by an animal Are having trouble breathing Have been coughing for more than a week Have severe headache with fever  Experience a rash or swelling Have unexplained or prolonged fever Have sudden vision problems Causes Infectious diseases can be caused by: 1. Bacteria These one-cell organisms are responsible for illnesses such as strep throat, urinary tract infections and tuberculosis. 2. Viruses Even smaller than bacteria, viruses cause a multitude of diseases ranging from the common cold to AIDS. 3. Fungi Many skin diseases, such as ringworm and athlete's foot, are caused by fungi. Other types of fungi can infect your lungs or nervous system. 4. Parasites Malaria is caused by a tiny parasite that is transmitted by a mosquito bite. Other parasites may be transmitted to humans from animal feces. Direct contact An easy way to catch most infectious diseases is by coming in contact with a person or an animal with the infection. Infectious diseases can be spread through direct contact such as: 1. Person to person  Infectious diseases commonly spread through the direct transfer of bacteria, viruses or other germs from one person to another. This can happen when an individual with the bacterium or virus touches, kisses, or coughs or sneezes on someone who isn't infected.  These germs can also spread through the exchange of body fluids from sexual contact. The person who passes the germ may have no symptoms of the disease, but may simply be a carrier. 2. Animal to person  Being bitten or scratched by an infected animal — even a pet — can make you sick and, in extreme circumstances, can be fatal.  Handling animal waste can be hazardous, too. 3. Mother to unborn child  A pregnant woman may pass germs that cause infectious diseases to her unborn baby. Some germs can pass through the placenta or through breast milk.  Germs in the vagina can also be transmitted to the baby during birth. Indirect contact 1. Disease-causing organisms also can be passed by indirect contact. Many germs can linger on an inanimate object, such as a tabletop, doorknob or faucet handle. 2. When you touch a doorknob handled by someone ill with the flu or a cold, for example, you can pick up the germs he or she left behind. If you then touch your eyes, mouth or nose before washing your hands, you may become infected. 3. Insect bites Some germs rely on insect carriers — such as mosquitoes, fleas, lice or ticks — to move from host to host. These carriers are known as vectors. Mosquitoes can carry the malaria parasite or West Nile virus. Deer ticks may carry the bacterium that causes Lyme disease. 4. Food contamination Disease-causing germs can also infect you through contaminated food and water. This mechanism of transmission allows germs to be spread to many people through a single source. Escherichia coli (E. coli), for example, is a bacterium present in or on certain foods — such as undercooked hamburger or unpasteurized fruit juice. Hygienic Habits Personal hygiene includes: Cleaning your body every day. Wash your hands with soap after going to the toilet. Brushing your teeth twice a day. Use a new toothbrush after recovering from cold or other illnesses. Covering your mouth and nose with a tissue (or your sleeve) when sneezing or coughing. Washing your hands after handling pets and other animals. Trimming your nails regularly. Wear socks to trap away moisture and make sure that your shoes fit properly. Environmental hygiene includes: Clean water supply Human and animal waste disposal Protection of food from contamination Provision of healthy housing, all of which are concerned with the quality of the human environment and proper management of the same. Food hygiene includes: Keep everything clean. Always wash your food, surfaces, hands, and tools properly. You also need to rinse your hand before handling food. Keeping your kitchen and pantry clean will also prevent insects and pests from invading your food storage. Separate raw and ready-to-eat food. Keeping raw ingredients and ready-to-eat food separate effectively prevents bacteria from spreading onto each other (cross-contamination). Use different chopping boards for vegetables, raw meat, dairy products, and cooked food. Cook thoroughly. We need to cook foods thoroughly to kill harmful germs. Use a food thermometer to ensure that food is cooked to an appropriate temperature. Follow the 2-hour rule. Refrigerate leftovers in an airtight container within 2 hours of cooking. Discard any pieces that have been standing at room temperature for an extended period. Regularly wipe down all kitchen surfaces, including counters, tabletops, and any other surface you frequently touch, like stove or microwave buttons. Never cut fruits or vegetables on the same cutting board you use to slice raw meat. Clean it with hot water and soap first. Drink boiled water. Avoid eating outside food. No using the same oil for cooking again and again. Domestic hygiene includes Keep all surfaces cleaned and sanitized after you cook. Use zippered plastic mattress and pillow covers. Once a week, wash all bedding in hot water above 130 ̊F to kill dust mites. Vacuum uncovered mattresses regularly. Keep the flush handle sanitized with a disinfectant that specifically lists fighting bacteria or viruses on the label. After bathing or showering, wipe down the tub or shower walls and curtain with a towel or squeegee. Some shower curtains can even be thrown in the washing machine. Throw soiled tissues away and empty the wastebasket daily. Don’t leave them lying around the room or on top of the counter. Open windows and doors and use fans to allow as much air to circulate in the room as possible.  Open windows periodically to help ventilate a room, especially after installing new carpet or painting walls. Keep Your Pets Clean. Sterilize Toys, Utensils, and Bottles for Children. To keep problems from dust to a minimum, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development recommends that you keep your home: clean dry well-ventilated maintained free of pests free of contaminants Thus maintaining proper hygiene protects the spread of infectious diseases and thus it helps in improving the quality of life of the people i.e. good physical and mental well being. Module 2 – Relationships 2.1 Relationships- Interpersonal relationship 2.2 a) Peer pressure- saying no to drugs, tobacco b) Bullying and its effect Interpersonal relationships make up a huge and vital part of your life. These relationships can range from close and intimate to distant and challenging. No matter the nature of the relationship, different types of relationships help make up the social support network that is pivotal for both your physical and mental well-being. You can have a relationship with a wide range of people, including family and friends. The phrase "being in a relationship," while often linked with romantic relationships, can refer to various associations one person has with another. To "be in a relationship" doesn't always mean there is physical intimacy, emotional attachment, and/or commitment involved. People engage in many different types of relationships that have unique characteristics. Platonic Relationships A platonic relationship is a type of friendship that involves a close, intimate bond without sex or romance. The term derives from Greek philosopher Plato's description of non-sexual Eros in the "Symposium." For Plato, non-sexual love can inspire ideas and connect people to the divine. These relationships tend to be characterized by: Closeness, Fondness, Understanding, Respect, Care, Support, Honesty ,Acceptance. Platonic relationships can occur in a wide range of settings and can involve same-sex or opposite-sex friendships. You might form a platonic relationship with a classmate or co- worker, or you might make a connection with a person in another setting such as a club, athletic activity, or volunteer organization you are involved in. This type of relationship can play an essential role in providing social support, which is essential for your health and well-being. Research suggests that platonic friendships can help reduce your risk for disease, lower your risk for depression or anxiety, and boost your immunity. It can teach you healthy skills in communication. It can help you understand how to be there for and support someone you have no romantic feelings for. It also gives you an insight to how they think, which can help you in finding a romantic relationship later. People are different, but many groups may similar ways of thinking, and having a friend in that group can give you some insight as to how they behave and what you can expect. Having a healthy platonic friendship could be very beneficial for your mental health, because you have someone you feel comfortable talking to about many aspects of your life. If you keep a relationship strictly platonic, then you can get to know someone of the opposite sex who is consistent. Without more stressful feelings involved, you can build a solid friendship with someone who you can depend on, and you do not need to worry about a breakup suddenly getting in the way, like you might need to worry about with a relationship. In general, there is just less pressure, which allows the friendship to be more consistent over time. Romantic Relationships Romantic relationships are those characterized by feelings of love and attraction for another person. While romantic love can vary, it often involves feelings of infatuation, intimacy, and commitment. Romantic relationships tend to change over time. At the start of a relationship, people typically experience stronger feelings of passion. During this initial infatuation period, the brain releases specific neurotransmitters (dopamine, oxytocin, and serotonin) that cause people to feel euphoric and "in love." Over time, these feelings start to lessen in their intensity. As the relationship matures, people develop deeper levels of emotional intimacy and understanding. Codependent Relationships A codependent relationship is an imbalanced, dysfunctional type of relationship in which a partner has an emotional, physical, or mental reliance on the other person.It is also common for both partners to be mutually codependent on each other. Both may take turns enacting the caretaker role, alternating between the caretaker and the receiver of care. Characteristics of a codependent relationship include:   Acting as a giver while the other person acts as a taker  Going to great lengths to avoid conflict with the other person  Feeling like you have to ask permission to do things  Having to save or rescue the other person from their own actions  Doing things to make someone happy, even if they make you uncomfortable  Feeling like you don't know who you are in the relationship  Elevating the other person even if they've done nothing to earn your goodwill and admiration.  Not all codependent relationships are the same, however. They can vary in terms of severity.  Co-dependency can impact all different types of relationships including relationships between romantic partners, parents and children, friendship, other family members, and even coworkers. Toxic Relationships A toxic relationship is any type of interpersonal relationship where your emotional, physical, or psychological well-being is undermined or threatened in some way. Such relationships often leave you feeling ashamed, humiliated, misunderstood, or unsupported. Any type of relationship can be toxic including friendships, family relationships, romantic relationships, or workplace relationships. Toxic relationships are characterized by:  A lack of support  Blaming  Competitiveness  Controlling behaviors  Disrespect  Dishonesty  Gaslighting  Hostility  Jealousy  Passive-aggressive behaviors  Poor communication  Stress Sometimes all people in a relationship play a role in creating this toxicity. For example, you may be contributing to toxicity if you are all consistently unkind, critical, insecure, and negative. In other cases, one person in a relationship may behave in ways that create toxic feelings. This may be intentional, but in other cases, people may not fully understand how they are affecting other people. Because of their past experiences with relationships, often in their home growing up, they may not know any other way of acting and communicating. This doesn't just create discontentment—toxic relationships can take a serious toll on your health. For example, according to one study, stress caused by negative relationships has a direct impact on cardiovascular health. Feeling isolated and misunderstood in a relationship can also lead to loneliness, which has been shown to have detrimental effects on both physical and mental health. Communication is often the single most important thing in a relationship. Good relationships are also marked by honesty, trust, and reciprocity. This doesn't mean that the relationship is purely transactional; it indicates that you naturally engage in a give and take that provides mutually beneficial support. No matter what type of relationship you have with another person(s), it is important for it to be a healthy one. Healthy relationships are characterized by trust, mutual respect, openness, honesty, and affection. Good communication is also a hallmark of a healthy relationship. There are steps that you can take to improve your relationships with other people. Making sure you let others know you care and showing your appreciation are two strategies that can be helpful. But if a relationship is causing stress or shows signs of being toxic, look for ways to establish clear boundaries, talk to a therapist, or even consider ending the relationship if it is too unhealthy. Social relationships are important and they come in all different types. Having a variety of relationships with different people can ensure that you have the support and connections you need for your emotional health and well-being. Stages in a relationship Neuroscientists and “experts in love" have outlined four stages of a relationship. They go from falling in love to living happily ever after (or, at least, for a while). Stage 1: The euphoric stage - 6 months to 24 months (2 years) Stage 2: The early attachment stage - 12 months (1 year) to 60 months (5 years) Stage 3: The crisis stage - 60 months (5 years) to 84 months (7 years) Stage 4: The deep attachment stage - 84 months (7 years) and beyond The Euphoric Stage For the past several decades, Helen Fisher, Ph.D., neuroscientist and Senior Research Fellow at the Kinsey Institute, and Lucy Brown, Ph.D., Clinical Professor in Neurology at Einstein College of Medicine in New York, have been studying the brain activity of people in love, from the early to the later stages. Brown explains that, "In the early part of a relationship— the falling in love stage—the other person is the center of your life. You forgive everything in these early stages. The other person has faults, and you see them, but it doesn’t matter. One of the most significant findings in the brain mapping studies (which was determined to be a key factor in relationship success) involves what Brown refers to as the suspension of negative judgment. In this early stage, many people show a decrease in activity in the prefrontal cortex, which is the part of the brain that has to do with the negative judgment of people. The Early Attachment Stage In the previous stage of euphoric love, unconscious factors like attraction and the activation of the reward system take over. In Fisher and Brown’s studies, the brain scans of couples in the early stages of love showed high levels of dopamine, the chemical that activates the reward system by triggering an intense rush of pleasure. In this next stage, the more evolved part of the brain begins to take over, including the ventral pallidum (the region of the brain linked with feelings of attachment, and the attachment hormones, vasopressin, and oxytocin—sometimes referred to as “the love hormone). You know when you’ve reached the early attachment stage when, according to Brown, “You can sleep! You’re not thinking about [your partner] 24 hours a day. It’s easier to do other things in your life.” Couples that had been married for at least one year described love differently. “It’s richer, deeper, it’s knowing them better," says Brown. “Memories have been integrated both positive and negative, you've gone through some difficulties, and you’ve developed a strong attachment.” The Crisis Stage The third stage is often the make or break point for relationships. What happens at this stage is crucial to what comes next. Brown refers to this as the "seven-year or five-year itch. “Almost every relationship has a drift apart phase,” says Brown. “Either you will keep drifting, or you will come back together. You need a crisis to get through and to be able to talk about it together—you’ve both grown and changed.” For some couples, having children will either solidify the relationship or cause enough stress to make the relationship fall apart. If a couple can overcome a crisis successfully, they will then move on to the next stage. The Deep Attachment Stage The deep attachment stage is the calm after the storm. By this point, a couple knows each other well, they've been through the inevitable ups and downs, they know that they can deal with crises, and they've likely made a plan for handling future crises. When describing this stage of relationships, the term that Brown reiterates is “calm.” “When couples have been together for many years. It’s just very very calm. And it’s secure.” The deep attachment stage can last a long time. How can we keep love going? According to researchers, one of the most effective ways of keeping the spark alive is novelty. Studies that have followed couples for years have found that doing new, exciting, and challenging activities together have huge benefits for relationships. Peer pressure - saying no to drugs, tobacco Peers play an important role in many people’s lives, especially in late childhood and adolescence when young people attempt to become more independent, gain acceptance, and build and identity. Peer pressure refers to the fact that peers can pressure one another to engage in certain behaviors — both positive and negative. People of all ages are susceptible to peer pressure. Peer pressure comes in many forms:  Environmental norms A person may experience pressure to adhere to what is “normal” among their peer group. For example, if everyone smokes, a person may feel left out when all of their friends take a smoke break. As a result, they may join in, even if their friends never encourage them to smoke or even actively discourage it.  Direct pressure: Direct pressure comes in the form of peers urging a person to do something, such as by threatening them, telling them how fun something will be, or suggesting a person do something they might not otherwise consider.  Indirect pressure: Indirect pressure happens when peers indirectly influence a person’s behavior. For example, several studies have shown that teens are more likely to be friends with people who share their habits, such as smoking. Many people see peer pressure as having negative effects, such as encouraging someone to smoke. However, it is important to note that peer pressure can also sometimes be positive. For example, a person’s friends may encourage them not to use drugs. The Theory Social scientists studying peer pressure view it through the lens of “Social Learning Theory.” This theory describes all the ways in which humans learn from each other. When a student hangs out with friends and sees them drink, they begin learning about this new behavior through several mechanisms covered in this theory. Social Reinforcement Receiving consequences specific to certain social situations. These social consequences can scare people into line to maintain their spot in the group. Ie. Friends judging you for not drinking at a party. Modeling Behavior Learning a new behavior from watching others, “monkey see, monkey do.” This learning mechanism is tied extremely closely to peer pressure. Ie. Grabbing an alcoholic drink when you see your friends all have one. Peer pressure and usage of drugs and tobacco Peer pressure is a risk factor for drug use, including alcohol use, among both children and adults. A person may be especially vulnerable to peer pressure if they say that peer acceptance is important to them, or if they are sensitive to rejection. The perception that alcohol or drug use is expected may also act as a form of peer pressure. People may deliberately choose to use drugs to fit in and avoid rejection. Or peer pressure may be more subtle, slowly normalizing drug use and making it seem less threatening. Drug use is a necessary prerequisite to drug misuse and substance use disorders, making it a key risk factor.The early use of drugs increases the lifetime risk of developing a substance use disorder. This suggests that children and teens who face high levels of peer pressure and give in to that pressure may have a higher lifetime risk of addiction. Tobacco use is a precursor to grave problems such as death, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Although the majority of college students will likely not face these consequences during their college careers, the reality is that many people who use tobacco run the risk of becoming addicted to this drug. Studies have shown that peers have greater influence on the individual for using tobacco compared to others. Also in a study it was seen that Participants were more likely to smoke cigarettes in the presence of someone else, specifically with their peers. How to resist peer pressure  Choosing peers who share their values and opinions: People will experience less negative peer pressure and more positive peer pressure when their friends do not use drugs or alcohol.  Practicing saying no to peers: Finding a way to say “no” can be tricky, especially if the other person is being very persuasive. You’ll need to stand your ground, even if your internal resolve feels a bit shaky. Use a firm voice and look them in the eye when speaking. In addition to saying no, you may also want to include a reason for your answer. Here are some things you can say to get your point across: i. “This is bad for my health.” ii. “This could ruin my life.” iii. “I am trying my best to stay clean.” iv. “I don’t use it anymore, so please stop asking.” v. “If I am caught, I will lose my housing.”  Back-up a no with a positive statement: For example, if you’re turning down an offer to smoke weed, say something like, “I like my brain the way it is, thanks.”  Using a buddy system  Having at least one peer who does not engage in the behavior can make it easier to resist pressure in a group setting.  Be repetitive  Don’t hesitate to state your position over and over again.  Consider the results of giving in  Take a moment to think about the consequences of your actions.  Find new friends   If you’ve decided that your friends don’t have your best interests at heart, search out new friends who share your values and interests.  Remember that you are important. Your life counts, and you can make a difference in this world. If you ever need to talk about this or anything else, feel free to get in touch with a therapist. Bullying and its effects Bullying is a form of behavior in which one person repeatedly assaults one or more others who have little or no power to retaliate (Olweus, 1996). In other words, in bullying relationships, one person does the aggression, and the other is on the receiving end. Why do people engage in bullying? Two motives appear to play a key role: the motive to hold power over others and the motive to be part of a group that is “tough” and therefore high in status. The Characteristics of Bullies and Victims Are bullies always bullies and victims always victims? While common sense suggests that these roles would tend to be relatively fixed, research findings indicate that, in fact, they are not. Many people who are bullies in one context become victims in other situations, and vice versa (Neuman & Baron, in press). So there are various combinations to consider—those who appear to be pure bullies (people who are always and only bullies), pure victims (people who are always sand only victims), and bully-victims (people who switch back and forth between these roles, depending on the context). But what, aside from the motives for power and belonging we described earlier, makes some people become bullies in the first place? Findings of careful research on bullying points to the following factors: First, bullies tend to believe that others act the way they do intentionally or because of lasting characteristics (Smorti & Ciucci, 2000). In contrast, victims tend to perceive others as acting as they do at least in part because they are responding to external events of conditions, including how others have treated them. Another difference is that bullies (and also bully-victims) tend to be lower in self- esteem than other people. As a result, they aggress against others to build up their self-image. In addition, bullies tend to adopt a ruthless, manipulative approach to life and to dealing with other people (e.g., Andreou, 2000; Mynard & Joseph, 1997). They believe that others are not to be trusted, so they feel it is totally justified to break their word and take unfair advantage of others (e.g., to attack them when their guard is down). Finally, bullies and bully-victims believe that the best way to respond to bullying is with aggression. They believe, more than other people, that being highly aggressive will bring them high levels of respect (Ireland & Archer, 2002). Effects of bullying Bullying behavior creates a culture of fear and has a negative impact on everyone, those who are bullied, those who bully, and those who witness bullying. Bullying is linked to many negative outcomes including impacts on mental health, substance use, and suicide. Effects of Bullying on the Bullied  Feel disconnected from school and not want to attend.  Have lower academic outcomes, including lower attendance.  Lack of quality friendships at school.  Display high levels of emotion that indicate vulnerability and low levels of resilience.  Avoid conflict and be socially withdrawn.  Have low self-esteem.  Become depressed, anxious and lonely.  Have nightmares.  Feel wary or suspicious of others. Some kids are so tormented by their bullies that they actually choose suicide as alternative to their pain which should NEVER be an option. Kids need to know that NOTHING is bad enough to take their own life. Effects of Bullying on those who display bullying behavior  People who display bullying behavior towards others may:  Display high levels of aggressive behavior which can impact their future.  Struggle to develop and maintain effective relationships.  Have difficulty integrating into education settings or the workplace.  Have difficulty understanding boundaries and limits. Effects of Bullying on Bystanders  Those who witness bullying behavior may:  Be reluctant to attend school.  Feel fearful, scared and guilty for not doing anything.  Experience pressure to participate in bullying.  Become anxious and worried. Reducing the Occurrence of Bullying: Some Positive Steps Bullying can have truly devastating effects on its victims. In fact, there have been several cases in which children who have been repeatedly bullied by their classmates have actually committed suicide (O’Moore, 2000), and similar results often occur in prisons, where people who are brutalized by their fellow inmates see death as the only way out. These distressing facts lead to the question, What can be done to reduce or even eliminate bullying? Many research projects, some involving entire school or prison systems in several countries, have been conducted to find out, and the results have been at least moderately encouraging. Here is an overview of the main findings: First, bullying must be seen to be a serious problem by all parties involved—teachers, parents, students, prisoners, guards, fellow employees, and supervisors (if bullying occurs in work settings). If bullying occurs, people in authority (teachers, prison guards, supervisors) must draw attention to it and take an unequivocal stand against it. Potential victims must be provided with direct means for dealing with bullying they must be told precisely what to do and who to see when bullying occurs. Outside help is often useful in identifying the cause of bullying and in devising programs to reduce it. Programs that have emphasized these points have produced encouraging results. Overall, then, there appears to be grounds for optimism; bullying can be reduced, provided it is recognized as being a serious problem and steps to deal with it are implemented. Group Dynamics The concept and Nature of Group Definitions: According to Farnham (2005, page 478) “a group is made up of persons (more than two, which is a dyad) who communicate regularly, share goals and interact with each other over time, so building up affective bonds”. Johns (1996, page 232) defined group as “Two or more people interacting interdependently to achieve a common goal” Group can also be defined as “two or more people with common interests, objectives, and continuing interaction” (Quick, Nelson and Khandelwal, 2013 page 320). Hersey et. al (1998, page 362) explained that “a group is two or more individuals interacting in which the existence of all (the existence of the group as a group) is necessary for the needs of the individual group members to be satisfied” One of the common elements - constituting two or more individuals; common objectives, interests and goals; work in tandem with each other; interdependent. Groups are of extreme importance in an organisational set up: o larger goals are achieved by the various groups in an organisation o Industrial democracy in workplace, where employees are encouraged to participate in decision making o complex nature of task that requires more than one individual and their perspectives to carry them out effectively,  o Brings out multiple perspectives and view points creative ideas and solutions are also generated o feel more secured and supported in a group set up o individual’s performance may get enhanced or facilitated Can be formal or informal Formal groups are the groups that are created by the organisation in a conscious effort in order to promote achievement of the organisational goal and purpose. Task forces and committees can be considered as types of formal groups. Task groups can be described as groups that are temporary in nature and are mainly established in order to carry out certain tasks (as the name suggests) and achieve the common purpose or goals assigned to them. Committees on the other hand are relatively more permanent are involved in dealing with certain assignments that may not be part of the work group structures that are usual Informal groups can be interest groups (example, employees coming together in demand for certain facilities), friendship group (members having similar views, preferences and opinions), recreational group (example, table tennis club or chess club) and so on. They can in certain situations facilitate organisational functioning or can even interfere with it. Stages of Group Development The five stage model by Bruce Truckman: 1) Forming: This is the initial stage that is denoted by some agreement amongst the members though there might exist ambiguity and lack of clarity with regard to the purpose of the group as well as the role expected from the members. The group at this stage requires necessary guidance and direction that they need to follow. The leader plays an important role here in bringing about clarity with regard to the purpose of the group and the role that each member is expected to play. 2) Storming: This stage is characterised by conflict, that the members may indulge in as there are power struggles between them, cliques and factions get established. Though during this stage there is some clarity in terms of purpose of the group, though certain uncertainties may continue to exist. During this stage, each member in a way is assessed by the other in terms of trustworthiness, comfort and acceptance. The leader mainly plays a role in coaching the group members. 3) Norming: During this stage there is increased clarity in the roles and responsibility of the group members. There is also increased agreement and consensus amongst the members. The group at this stage focuses more on the decision making process and the task achievement is also highlighted. The leader at this stage mainly needs to play a role of a facilitator. 4) Performing: This stage is denoted by vision that us clear. There is also clarity with regard to the purpose of the group. The group focuses mainly on the achievement of the group goal and decision making. Any disagreements amongst the group members are also adequately resolves. the group in a way gains maturity that contributes to the effective performance of the group. The leader can play a role in delegation of work and overseeing the functioning of the group. 5) Adjourning: This is the fifth and the last stage of group development. The task is accomplished and thus the group can now adjourn and move on to other tasks. The group members may display a good feeling and sense of achievement as the group goal is achieved. The leader here plays an important role of recognising the contributions of the group members. Determinants of Group Productivity These determinants can have an impact group productivity but can also influence employee productivity and job satisfaction. Group Size:  both advantages and disadvantages of having a small or large group  No ideal size  depend on nature of the work or functions to be carried out  number of members the group leader will be able to effectively supervise (span of control)  The span of control affected by extent of subordinate training, ability to delegate, the rate at which change takes place in an organisation and the extent of personal contact that exists between the employees in an organisation  group size increases - also an increase in the resources that can enhance the accomplishment  but issues related to management, coordination and organisation  It is important to have an optimal group size that will not only make available adequate resources but also allows effective coordination and organisation. Group Composition:  similarity or dissimilarity amongst the group members in terms of the demographic factors like age, gender, personal traits, background of the members etc  No concrete answer of what is better – similar or dissimilar  nature of the task (whether simple or complex), can play an important role.  simpler task - may require a group that is more homogeneous  complex tasks- heterogeneous group will bring in more diverse views and opinions  Traits like being stable and responsible, dependable, being self reliant can be significant for members to perform in tandem with each other FIRO-B (Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation) theory - mainly focuses on how individuals adjust or orient themselves to others and emphasises the significance of compatible needs. highlights the three compatible needs: Inclusion (need maintain interaction with others that is satisfactory) control (need to influence others and direct their behaviour) affection (need for closeness with others). Group Norms:  Norms - standards of behaviour that the group members are expected to adhere to in the group and these norms are common to all members and develop as a result of gradual process incongruence with the development of the group.  may or may not be written and could also be implicit or explicit.  related to performance, teamwork, communication amongst the members, interpersonal relationship, honesty, training and development, change, innovation, leadership etc. Guirdham, (1995) stated four norms that are found in a group: 1. Fairness: There has to be fairness and equitability in the contributions of the group members towards group activity. 2. Reciprocity: Group members need to display reciprocity, that is if one of the group members if helpful towards another then this group members needs to reciprocate. 3. Reasonableness: The behaviour of the group members needs to be rational and reasonable and they should not exploit each other in any way. 4. Role expectation: This mainly denotes the expectation with regard to role that the groups members are expected to play or carryout. - Central values of the group are expressed through the norms - regulate the behaviour of the members, thus enhancing group functioning. - reflection of the nature of the group. - Serve as guiding principles that determine the group members behaviour and also help in dealing with any deviant behaviour - Accepted by the large number of group members and focus more on group behaviour than the feeling and thoughts of the members. - Play an important role in management of the group - Any deviation is dealt with by varying degrees of tolerance and this will also depend on the status of the individual in the group as well as the norm that was violated. - Noncompliance and compliance of the group norms often meets with punishment and reward respectively. - Difficult to change or modify. Group Cohesiveness: - Cohesion - the degree to which the members of the group are attracted to the group and to one another - the cement that binds the group members together. - the total field of forces causing members to remain in the group - Factors like similarity between members, openness displayed by them, trust can have an impact on group cohesion. - Determined by the needs of the group members, the nature and type of group activities, the past experience of the group mainly in terms of failures and success and also the incentive properties related to the group membership. - High cohesiveness is more likely to work effectively and the interaction and coordination between the members is also enhanced. It is also linked with high satisfaction, morale and motivation. Leads to increased achievement of group goals, better communication, increased loyalty and reduction in absenteeism and turnover. Group leadership: - A leader plays an important role in not only directing the group activities towards the group goal but also has significant influence on the group members and their behaviour. - The leadership style will depend on the nature of the group and task. In an organisational set up the focus should also be on leaders of informal groups besides the leaders of formal group. Teams: Nature & Types Teams can be explained in terms of groups that more matured and have a interdependence amongst the members that is higher in degree. The team also works in the direction of achieving the team goals. Team can also be described as a small group of individuals who possess complementary skills and have a common purpose, goals and approach or strategy for which they can be held accountable as a team. Group vs Team  Most often used interchangeable  Groups are often larger in size when compared to teams.  Groups include two or more members who interact with each other.  teams are groups that are more mature in nature.  Group members are comparatively less interdependent  team members display a higher sense of common purpose  accountability amongst the team members is also higher Effective Team Building activities that mainly involve building and improving team performance. Team size: A team size could ideally be between 4 and 12 as a larger team could be difficult to coordinate and manage and could give rise to issues like conflict and social loafing. Further, managing communication in larger teams also could be difficult. Having smaller teams, that is, less that four member may not serve the purpose as the diversity of opinions and view points is reduced. Thus, based on the purpose and nature of the work activity the team size can be determined. 2) Composition of the team: While building a team, keeping in mind the nature of the work activity and the goal, decision can be taken with regard to whether the team needs to be homogeneous (members having similar background and skills) or heterogeneous (members with diverse background and skills) in nature. Goals need to be specific and clear: The team needs to be provided with goals that are clear and specific. Ambiguous goals could have a negative impact on the functioning and performance of the team. Goals thus need to be SMART, that is, they need to be Specific, Measurable Achievable, Reasonable and need to be achieved within a timeframe. Team cohesiveness: As we discussed about group cohesiveness, team cohesiveness is also relevant. Management need to focus on enhancing team cohesiveness so as to ensure effective team functioning. Thus team members also need to be selected based on whether they will be willing and able to work in tandem with each other towards achieving the team goal. High team cohesiveness can have a positive impact on the functioning and productivity of the team members and can also lead to reduction in any conflict amongst the members. Management of diversity: This is also an important aspect of building effective teams. Diversity can be of great advantage as it brings in varied perspectives and opinions. However, if not managed effectively it could lead to conflicts. Thus while building teams, the management needs to ensure that there is diversity in the team but at the same time the team members should be encouraged to respect and accept each other and work together to achieve the team goal. Promoting trust amongst the team members: To built effective teams, trust needs to be cultivated and promoted amongst the members. Trust can be defined as “each member’s faith in others’ intentions and behaviours” (Nanhavandi, Denhardt, Denhardt and Aristigueta, 2015 page 364). Development of trust amongst team members is relevant for the team to function adequately and is also important for its effective coordination, to promote collaboration and cooperation amongst the members. Leadership: This is one of the most important aspects of building teams. Selection of a leader needs to be carried out adequately and on the basis or nature of the team and based on task and purpose allotted to the team. Leadership could also be on rotation basis, where each member of the team gets an opportunity to lead the team. In either case, the leader plays an important role in keeping the team together and directing its activities towards achieving the team goals. A team leader needs to have a clear idea about the goals of the team as well as the overall and larger goal of the organisation. He/ she also needs to be aware about skills and roles expected of each team member and he/ she also needs to play an adequate role in motivating, guiding, supporting, encouraging and providing suitable feedback to the team members. Training: While building a team, the skills and knowledge of the team members needs to be kept in mind. And based on the task allotted, the team members need to be provided with adequate training. Training provided could be related to technical skills or behavioural skills related to communication, team work, interpersonal relationship and so on. Thus, based on the demand of the task allotted to the team and the team goal, suitable training programmes can be carried out for the team members. Management of conflict: Management of conflict is an important aspect of team building and the management in an organisation as well as the team leader need to work in this direction. Though discussion is relevant while carrying out team activities and there could also be disagreement due to varied perspectives and opinions amongst the team members, any conflict needs to be managed effectively so that it does not interfere with the team functioning and performance. Problems Affecting Teamwork When a number of individuals come together to carry out a common activity to achieve a common goal/ purpose, a number of problems could crop up. Varied individuals will bring varied perspectives and opinions that may sometimes clash and there could be disagreement. There could also be lack of coordination and communication gap between the team members. Thus there could be numerous problems that may affect effective functioning of a team. It is important that these problems are identified and deal with adequately to avoid any interference with the effective functioning of the team. Some of the problems that can effect teamwork are discussed as follows: 1) Changes in the team composition: Any changes, especially frequent changes, in the composition of the team, like additions, transfers and change in members of the team can interfere with the functioning of the team, especially because the rapport and the interpersonal relationship that the team members have amongst them will be disintegrated. The team cohesiveness may also get affected which in turn can have a negative impact on team functioning and productivity, thus affecting the achievement of team goals. 2) Interpersonal relationship between team member: Issues can also arise due to inadequate interpersonal relationship between the team members. Any conflict between the team members can have an impact on the functioning of the the team in the direction of goal attainment. 3) Communication related issues: There could also be problems related to communication. There could be miscommunications or communication gaps between the team members that can affect the interpersonal relationship between the team members. 4) Social loafing: Social loafing can be defined as “ the failure of a group member to contribute personal time, effort, thoughts or other resources to the group” (Quick et al, 2015, pg 771). Social loafing on part of some members in the team can have an impact on both the morale of the team as well as team performance. 5) Ineffective leadership: Leader play most important role in team work and if the leadership is not effective or if the leader does not have a clear idea about the team goal or about the role to be played by each member of the team then the team work could get affected. The leader is also responsible for effective coordination, collaboration and cooperation amongst the team members and he/ she is not able to perform these functions effectively the teamwork may get affected. 6) Role ambiguity: Besides clarity in goals, the team members also need to have a clear idea about the roles that they are expected to play, as lack of clarity will again interfere with the achievement of team goal. 7) Lack of trust between the members: For team members to function together effectively, they need trust each other. It is important that for early stages of team development the team members start developing trust and rapport with each other. Lack of trust amongst the members can negatively influence the interpersonal relationship and sharing or ideas, opinions, information and knowledge between the team members. 8) Domination by one or more members: It may so happen that in a team one or more members may dominate the discussion, decision making and problem solving process. This needs to be avoided and the leader needs to ensure that each and every member is provided with scope to put across his/ her view points and contribute to the teamwork. 9) Lack of motivation and morale: If the team members are low on morale and motivation, they may not adequately work in the direction of achieving the team goal. Thus dues care needs to be taken to ensure that the team members are duly motivated that their morale is boosted with the help of reinforcements, encouragements, feedback and so on. 10) Disagreements amongst team members over team activities and goals: Any disagreement amongst team members with reference to the team activities and goals should be avoided or settled at the earliest (is any arise). This is crucial for effective functioning of the team. Open communication should be encouraged between the team members and also between the leader and the team members. Clarity needs to be maintained with regard to goals and activities that the team needs to carry out. As far as possible shared leadership should be encouraged amongst the team members. The focus should also be on the behavioural aspect of the team members. Team members need to be encouraged to respect each other and should also be helped to develop skills like effective listening, positive attitude and so on. They should also be encouraged to express their opinions but not hurt feelings of their team members, support each other, not involve in blame games and focus on the problems and their solutions. As far as possible team members need to be encouraged to take decisions based on consensus. Ensure that there is a supportive environment for the team to function effectively. Conflict Conflict may be defined as a struggle or contest between people with opposing needs, ideas, beliefs, values, or goals. The concise Oxford Dictionary defines conflict as distress due to opposing of incompatible wishes etc. in a person. For example, a student wants to appear for entrance exams for English Major from two universities and the date of exams is same. The student will be facing a conflict about it as he\she cannot appear for both the entrance exams. He\she needs some guidance or assistance to cope up with it. In other words the individual experiences a conflict due to simultaneous arousal of two or more needs, and he\she cannot satisfy one without denying the other. An individual has several motives to achieve. Sometimes " two motives compete with each other and the satisfaction of one of the motives leads to blocking of the other. For example, an individual may like to attend the class to be taken by the teacher whom he likes most or go for a movie which he has been waiting to see. He fails to choose either of the two. This situation creates conflict in the mind of the individual. Conflicting situations create tension and a feeling of restlessness in our mind. In every conflict, the individual experiences certain degree of uneasiness and discomfort. You may resolve conflicts by seeking advice from others or by analyzing and weighing the comparative merits and demerits of conflicting motives. An unresolved conflict is a state of stress and strain for the individual. An analysis of the definitions of conflict reveals the following assumptions:  A conflict is more than a mere disagreement. It is a situation in which people perceive a threat-physical, emotional, power, status etc. to their well-being. Persons in conflict tend to respond on the basis of their perceptions of the situations rather than an objective review of it. As such, people filter their perceptions through their values, culture, beliefs, information, experience, gender and other variables.  Conflict responses are filled with ideas and feelings that can be very strong and powerful guides to our sense of possible solutions. As in any problem, conflicts contain substantive, procedural and psychological dimensions to be negotiated. In order to best understand the threat perceived by those engaged in a conflict, we need to consider all of these dimensions.  Conflicts are normal experiences within the work environment. They are also, to a large degree, predictable and expectable situations that naturally arise as we go about managing complex and stressful projects in which we are significantly invested.  Creative problem-solving strategies are essential to positive approaches to conflict management. We need to transform the situation from one in which it is my way or the highway into one in which we entertain new possibilities that have been otherwise elusive. Conflict Management Conflict management involves acquiring skills related to conflict resolution, self-awareness about conflict modes, conflict communication skills, and establishing a structure for management of conflict in your environment. Ability to manage conflict is probably one of the most important social skills an individual can possess. Listening, oral communication, interpersonal communication and teamwork rank near the top of skills that are appreciated. When you learn to effectively manage and resolve conflicts with others, then more opportunities for successful team membership are possible; and you are less apt to practice destructive behaviour that will negatively impact your team. Although conflict may be misunderstood and unappreciated, research shows that unresolved conflict can lead to aggression. Most of us use conflict management skills that we observed when growing up, unless we have made a conscious effort to change our conflict management style. Soine of us observed good conflict management, while others observed faulty conflict management. Most of us have several reasons to improve our conflict-management skills. Faculty members should help students develop their conflict management skills. Most people do not resolve conflicts because they either have a faulty skill set and or because they do not know the organization's policy on conflict management. All team members need to know their conflict styles, conflict intervention methods, and strategies for conflict skill improvement. It has been found that issues which cannot find easy solution in a courtroom are most likely to be settled at the negotiating table in a face to face in the presence of committee members. The social interactions play a role in finding an amicable solution to many complaints/grievances of students, teachers and often staff members. Styles of Conflict Management By consciously choosing a conflict mode ,we are more likely to productively contribute to solving the problem at hand. There are several styles of conflict management that people use, some of which are more effective than others. Below are five conflict response modes that people use typically: Competing This is a power-oriented mode, in which one uses whatever power seems appropriate to win one's own position: one's ability to argue, one's rank or economic status. Competing might even mean standing up for your rights, defending a position which you believe correct, or simply trying to win. The skills involved in this style include:  Arguing or debating  Using rank or Influence  Asserting your opinions and feelings  Standing your ground  Stating your position clearly. This style, however, can appropriately be used when quick action needs to be taken, when unpopular decisions needs to be made, when vital issues must be handled, or when one is protecting self-interest. Avoiding Many times people avoid conflicts out of fear of engaging in a conflict or because they do not have confidence in their conflict management skills. This style is appropriate when you have issues of low importance, to reduce tension, or when vou are in a position of lower power. The skills involved in this style include:  Ability to withdraw.  Ability to leave things unresolved.  Ability to side step issues.  Sense of timing. Accommodating This style is opposite to competing. When accommodating, an individual neglects his or her own concerns to satisfy the concerned of the other persons. There is an element of self- sacrifice in this mode. This mode is appropriate when you are to show reasonableness, develop performance, create good will, or keep peace. Some people use this mode when the issue or outcome is of low importance to them. The accommodating skills are:  Forgetting your desires  Ability to yield.  Selflessness.  Obeying Orders. Compromising Compromising can be defined as "giving up more than you want". Some define it as both parties winning. Compromise mode is appropriate when you are dealing with issues of moderate importance, when you have equal power status, or when you have a strong commitment for resolution. Compromising mode can also be used as a temporary solution when there are time constraints. The skills involved in compromising include:  Negotiating  Assessing value  Finding a middle ground.  Making concessions. Collaborating This style is opposite to avoiding. Collaborating involves an attempt to work with the other person to find some solution which fully satisfies the concerns of both persons. It means digging in to an issue to identify the underlying concerns of the two individuals and to find an alternative which meets both sets of concerns. This is clearly the most effective approach of conflict management. Collaborative mode is appropriate when the conflict is important to the people who are constructing an integrative solution, when the issues are too important to compromise, when merging perspectives, when gaining commitment, when improving relationships, or when learning. The collaborating skills are:  Active listening  Identifying concerns  Non-threatening confrontation  Analyzing input Models of Conflict Management 1. Derr’s Model Derr's model is known as contingency model of conflict management, which suggests three major strategies, viz. power play; bargaining, and collaboration. Power Play is used to deal with conflicts through striking balance between competing forces. This strategy works well with people who are well versed in using power tactics. Bargaining works fine when parties are interested in showing power and is used as a mechanism to allocate scarce resources and usually invoked for arriving at a formal agreement. Bargaining is also effective in the situations where parties in conflict use either collaboration or power play and fail to arrive at an agreement. Derr suggested that collaboration is best suited when relationship between the parties is of interdependent nature, cost of unresolved conflict is very high and organization supports the open expression of disagreements and working through the same. The two variables, namely in-group integration and criticality of conflict issues seem to influence choice of strategies and may vary from low to high. If the group is not well integrated, negotiation may not be the appropriate strategy to be used. If the group is internally divided, the group conflict may further worsen under the threat of other group. As the two variables approach high, approach strategies of conflict management may become more relevant and eventually parties may move towards negotiation. Movement towards negotiation may be through compromise or through third party intervention that can facilitate the process of negotiation. Adoption of negotiation may be a gradual process and parties may take their own time to understand the procedure towards that. 2. Pareek’s Model Udai Pareek proposed a contingency model of conflict management strategies which consists of avoidance-approach style of conflict management, based on three variables: i. Mode of conflict management: Avoidance vs Approach mode ii. Reasonableness of the out-group: Open to reason vs Unreasonable. iii. Interest in peace: Interested in peace vs Belligerent. A combination of three variables results in eight styles of conflict management - Four avoidance styles and four approach styles. Avoidance Styles Extreme avoidance of conflict happens when the out-group is belligerent and unreasonable, resultant approach is sense of helplessness. However, if the out-group has perceived interest in power, avoidance takes place so that there is minimum opportunity for interaction. However, when out-group is perceived as open to reason, avoidance takes a positive form: withdrawal from the conflict. If both groups are interested in peace, they may suppress the conflict and hide hurt feelings and losses. In such situation, i.e. under avoidance mode no conflicts get resolved. Approach Styles Conflict management may vary from very aggressive approach to a very positive and constructive approach. If in-group perceives the out group both as opposed to its interest and unreasonable, in-group members fight for solution in their favour. Blake and Mouton called this 'win-lose trap'. This is where parties use confrontation style. If out-group is perceived as unreasonable but interested in peace., compromise. is used. When out-group is perceived as belligerent but open to reason, arbitration or third party intervention is considered appropriate. When parties are reasonable, having their own interest and keen to arrive a peaceful solution, negotiation will be the most appropriate strategy. Techniques of Conflict Management Negotiation and Bargaining Negotiation is one of the most used techniques for resolving a conflict in our daily life. Here, the two parties confer with one another with a view to bringing about a compromise, an agreement or settlement of the dispute. Its outcome may be a Conflict Management temporary cessation of conflict or a lasting solution. In a negotiation, the parties in conflict come together, discuss and argue about the terms of compromise that would lead to the resolution. In some cases, the parties concerned directly confer with one another. In other cases, and more frequently so, negotiation is carried out through the representatives of the parties. In all negotiations certain amount of bargaining takes place concerning the terms of settlement. Bargaining involves three factors: (1) parties in conflict have divergent interests (2) there is some form of communication, direct or through representatives between the parties (3) there is give and take between the parties, i.e, the parties make provisional offers or concessions for the resolution of the conflict. Each party tries to extract as much advantage for self as it possibly can. This is usually sought to be achieved by getting the most from the opponent and conceding as little as possible. For this, various types of bargaining strategies are employed. Social psychologists have studied these experimentally and have determined how they affect the resolution of the conflict. The literature in this area is rich and extensive, and it is not possible to go into the details. A few major points only are indicated briefly. The "studies" have analysed how the behaviour of one party affects the other as well as the outcome of negotiation, and how bargaining strategies develop. The party, to begin with, may take a very tough stand and make strong demands on the other party. Or, it may take a "soft" line initially. We frequently observe these in negotiations between the students and the university administration in settling a campus dispute. Studies have revealed that from a bargaining point of view, it is better to begin by making highly discrepant offers to very strong demands. Thereby, one is likely to get more concessions from the opponents rather than beginning with offers that are felt to be completely fair and moderate. However, taking a very strong initial position may lead to the breakdown of the negotiation. On the other hand, making very generous concessions in the beginning may be interpreted by the opponent a sign of weakness, and he or she may, as a result, assume a tough stand. The effect of making initially very small concessions and taking a tough stand or its reverse on the behavior of the opponent and the outcomes of the negotiation have been studied. In fact, how the behaviour of the opponent in a negotiation affects the bargaining process, has received special attention of the researchers. A fact that seems to emerge is that of norm of reciprocity, which has already been discussed. It appears that seems to emerge is that of norms of competition begets competition, and cooperation begets cooperation. In general, research of bargaining and concessions indicates that the best strategy involves reciprocating opponent's cooperative behaviour with small concessions. Failure to make any concession is likely to result in a breakdown of negotiations. On the other hand, making large, uncondtional concessions is likely to lead to exploitation unless a clear explanation of the reasons for the concession is given. It is this aspect which Osgood (1962) had in mind when he suggested the 'GRIT' strategy for the resolution of international conflicts. An aspect that affects all negotiations is the element of how much time is available for bargaining. If time is of no concern, the parties tend to fill up the available time. Studies indicate that time pressure leads to faster concession from the negotiating parties. However, if time pressure is sought to be put by one party on the other in a negotiation, it must be perceived as real, otherwise it loses its credibility. This is so evident in most cases of negotiations with the hijackers of aeroplanes when their threat (to take drastic action if within the given time their demands are not conceded) is not carried out. If nothing happens, and the time is extended, the credibility of time pressure is lessened. In fact, time pressure can sometimes backfire. It may give rise to threat and coercion. Thus, if a student union negotiating with the vice-chancellor has put a time limit by which the negotiations have to succeed, the administration, feeling that the time is about to run out and violence may occur on the campus, may pre-empt it by calling the police and getting the ring leaders put in prison. Module 3 – Leadership and Management Skills  Universal Human Values UNIT 1 UNIVERSAL HUMAN VALUES * Structure 1.0 Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Understanding Human Values 1.3 Human Values from Individual to Universal Perspectives 1.4 Human Values Dictating Day-to-Day Life Decisions 1.5 Pillars of Human Values 1.6 Relevance of Human Values 1.7 Let Us Sum Up 1.8 Key Words 1.9 Some Useful Books/Articles/Links 1.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises 1.0 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit, you will be able to: explain the meaning of human values and how they have been universally conceived; discuss the notions of human values from individual and universal perspectives; highlight he importance of various pillars of human values; identify the role of human values in dictating day-to-day decision-making choices; and recognise the potential and relevance of human values for general well-being. 1.2 INTRODUCTION Human values can be understood as the values that have been conceived and preferred by the people in a society that has inspired their actual conduct and behaviour and prepared them to attain the best in their lives. Human values involve the process of selection, preference and acceptance of certain values for life. For instance, humans are considered as social animals who have evolved a very complex social system with the enhanced capacity to retain, transmit and improve upon the knowledge they possess. Throughout the evolution of humankind, understanding of people according to their environment has changed drastically. The process of change that humans have experienced *Dr. Namit Vikram Singh, Assistant Professor, Delhi School of Journalism, Delhi University, Delhi. Acknowledgments : Mr. Raghav Srivastava, graduate student, Bennett University. 11 Civic Awareness in different stages of their lives is to a greater extent influenced by human values within a society. The nucleus of society’s advancement has been the ever progressing and evolving thoughts and ideals of people. Human values, in this regard too have evolved through time and remains to do so as per the changing social and cultural environment of a society. The complication emerges when people of a society are subjected to different types of social environments Human values, as discussed by and hence, their values tend to shape Nicolai Hartmann (1967), can differently. Individually, values can be be understood as the conditions different but on a collective level, the which determine and shape common qualities can be seen as the human culture and also is social glue, which binds them together conditioned by it in order to gain in a society. These values that people universal acceptance. hold to be significant and desirable are referred to as human values. These human values are embedded deeply and influence attitudes, conclusions, and actions of people. They represent the things that are valued, significant, and worthwhile in life, including truthfulness, integrity, respect, compassion, freedom and justice. They serve as a basis for moral decision-making and help people decide what they believe to be right or bad in light of their own personal or cultural convictions. 1.2 UNDERSTANDING HUMAN VALUES Tracing the origin of human values can be a complex process, as these values have multiple sources of origin. Human values have always aimed to be constructive in nature, which in turn could provide a sense of balance and collective engagement within a society. It is important to state that human values have evolved over a very long period. Humans have created and recreated them based on their social and cultural surroundings such as: Influences from Culture and Society: Culture has a big impact on how people value things. The socialization processes that take place in families, communities, educational institutions, and larger cultural contexts frequently result in the transmission of values. Specific values within a culture can arise and are reinforced through cultural norms, traditions, and practices. Family and Upbringing: The formation of human values is significantly influenced by family dynamics and upbringing. An individual’s value system is greatly influenced by the values they are taught by their parents or other key caregivers, as well as by the family’s cultural, religious, or ideological backgrounds. 12  Formal Institutions and Education: Education, both formal and Universal Human Values informal, is a key factor in determining values. Values can be taught at educational institutions through their curricula, instructional strategies, and extracurricular activities. The development of people’s value systems can be influenced by the values that are promoted in educational systems and institutions. Personal Experiences and Interactions: Human values can be shaped and altered through personal experiences, such as social interactions and exposure to various viewpoints. Events can have a positive or negative impact on a person’s values by causing them to reflect and reevaluate their views and priorities. Examples of such events include personal successes, hardships, or experiencing injustice. Media and Popular Culture: By promoting popular ideas, customs, and lifestyles, media, including television, films, books, and social media, can shape values. A person’s exposure to new ideas, challenges to their held beliefs, or reinforcement of society values can all be influenced by the media. Religion and Spirituality: For many people, religion and spiritual beliefs play a crucial role in forming the core of their human values. A framework for moral principles, ethical precepts and value systems that affect believers’ behaviours and decision-making is frequently provided by religious teachings and scriptures. Evolutionary and Biological Factors: According to some academics, some values may have evolved because they promote social cohesiveness and cooperation. A person’s propensity for specific values or moral judgments may also be influenced to some extent by biological variables like genetics and brain shape. 1.3 HUMAN VALUES FROM INDIVIDUAL TO UNIVERSAL PERSPECTIVES Human values as a concept can be interpreted from different individual perspectives as it has multiple nodes of origin. For instance, in the case of India, the very notion of human values can be understood from four “purusartha” which identify ‘Artha’, ‘Kama’, ‘Dharma’ and ‘Moksha’ as fundamental human values. These values have been defined among others by Kautilya and Vatsayana. According to these scholars, ‘Artha’ has been interpreted as the value of existence and maintenance of human life. It emphasizes on material gain and physical well-being. ‘Kama’ has been defined as the pleasure resulting from satisfaction of desires. The sensuous desires have been interpreted in the form of gratification which is necessary for human well-being. ‘Dharma’ has been interpreted as the law or principles of integration and maintenance of things. Lastly, ‘Mokhsa’ reflects the supreme goal of human life which is liberation or salvation from the effects of ‘Karma’. Similarly, from Buddhist perspectives human values have been defined based on four eternal truths. These truths have been identified as ‘Shashwat Satya’. The truths are as under: 13 Civic Awareness a) Life is not devoid of sorrows, suffering and anguish, etc. b) The anguish and suffering have a cause. c) The suffering that an individual faces can be put to an end. d) There are many ways and means through which pain and suffering can be overcome in life. Buddhism in this regard has also elaborated that if a person is unable to define the real vs unreal due to ignorance, then that person is bound to suffer. As a result, the ultimate goal of the individual is to make himself or herself self-aware about his or her surroundings that can help him or her to achieve true knowledge for liberation. Buddhism has recommended the eight-fold path that can help an individual to lead a balanced life and well- being. These are as under: a) Right Perception (Samyak Drishti). b) Right Determination (Samyak Samkalpa). c) Right Speech (Samyak Vaka). d) Right Conduct (Samyak Karma). e) Right Vocation (Samyak Ajivika). f) Right Exercise (Samyak Vijayama). g) Right Memory (Samyak Smriti). h) Right Meditation (Samyak Samadhi). Human values ultimately take a universal shape if they are similar in practice among different cultures throughout the world. The meaning behind each value is uniform and universally accepted across different social and cultural spaces. Some of the human values which have gained a universal acceptance are: 1. Un-Biasness 2. Loyalty 3. Cooperation 4. Transparency 5. Objectivity 6.Discipline 7. Inspiration 8. Social Responsibility 9. Managing Conflict The presence of universal human values in any organization or a society can help in enhancing the credibility among the stakeholders, facilitating decision-making choices in a rational way, promoting self-discipline, encouraging objectivity in life and most importantly ensuring trust and balance among the individuals in a larger setup. One of the stark differences that can be seen between individual and universal human values can be that individual human values are directly concerned with the development of human personality. It focuses on reshaping the individual’s norms and outlook towards honesty, loyalty and honour. On the other hand, universal human values are those which have a greater social and cultural acceptance, and these values are oriented towards human growth and development. Despite the difference between the two, universal human values take shape only when individual human values gradually take shape into a collective and gain a mass acceptance from different socio-cultural spaces of society. 14  Universal Human Values 1.4 HUMAN VALUES DICTATING DAY-TO-DAY LIFE DECISIONS It is important to point out that our daily decision-making processes are greatly influenced by human values. They have an impact on the decisions we take, the steps we take, and the behaviour we display in different spheres of life. Human values have the following effects on our decision-making process: 1. Prioritization: By identifying which possibilities are consistent with our values, human values enable us to prioritize what is important in our lives and directs our decision-making accordingly. For instance, if we value honesty, we are more likely to incorporate it in our lives when interacting with others and making decisions, even if it is more challenging or uncomfortable for us. 2. Ethics: Human values act as a moral compass for us, helping us to discriminate between right and wrong. They aid in our analysis of the ethical consequences of our choices and deeds. Fairness, integrity, and compassion are examples of values that can help us make morally right judgments by motivating us to think about how our actions will affect other people. 3. Setting Objectives: Our personal goals are influenced by our values. They influence our desires and define what we regard as important and satisfying. The course we take in life and the goals we choose for ourselves are determined by our values. For instance, if we place a high value on personal development, we might make seeking educational or professional development opportunities our top priority. 4. Relationships and Interactions: Our relationships and social interactions are influenced by our values. They help us make decisions about our friendships, partnerships, and team projects. Trust, respect, and empathy are values that affect how we treat people and the kinds of interactions we strive to build. 5. Personal Well-Being: Our general happiness and well-being are influenced by human values. We feel genuine, content, and peaceful when we make choices that are consistent with our core beliefs. Internal turmoil, remorse, and discontent can result from disregarding or acting contrary to our ideals. 6. Long-Term Effects: Values encourage us to think about the long-term effects of our choices. They encourage us to contemplate the bigger picture of how our decisions affect us, those around us, and the planet beyond the immediate gains or short-term benefits. For instance, if we prioritize conservation and lessen our ecological footprint, we may make decisions that reflect this goal. 7. Self-Reflection and Self-Awareness: Reflecting on oneself and being aware of oneself are encouraged by values. We can better understand our motives, beliefs, and desires by looking at our values. Because of our increased self-awareness, we can make choices that are in line with who we truly are and advance our personal development. 15 Civic Awareness It is, therefore, important to remember that people may prioritize and interpret values in different ways, resulting in a range of viewpoints and approaches to decision-making. Furthermore, social and cultural factors may have an impact on the values that are stressed and reinforced in a specific setting. Human values nevertheless play a significant role in our daily decision- making, guiding us through the challenges of life and ensuring that our deeds are consistent with our fundamental beliefs. Check Your Progress 1 1. Discuss the key points which determine how human values are formed. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ 2. Briefly explain how human values dictate the choices one makes in the one's day-to-day lives. _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________ 1.5 PILLARS OF HUMAN VALUES It is important to note that human values have certain fundamentals which are necessary for any society to exist in a state of balance. These fundamentals are as under: a) Truth b) Love c) Peace d) Non-Violence e) Righteous Conduct These fundamentals are not only interrelated but also inherent in human beings which define their human-like qualities. These fundamentals can be seen important for human values because they are in line with the human beings and give rise to many other related values in different social and cultural spaces. As a result, understanding human values without these fundamentals may provide a distorted or a narrow outlook to how human values help in promoting a state of balance within a society. In the case of ‘Truth’, it is an important fundamental which dictates our conscience. It is relative and keeps changing according value, to circumstances. It provides a sense of integrity in life and therefore is a very important human value. ‘Love’ can be understood as a spontaneous feeling which is affected by the sub-conscious mind. It is different from emotion. It helps in ensuring that one person is sensitive to the sense of happiness and well-being of the other. It is a value which binds people and allows them to exist as a collective unit. ‘Peace’, on the other hand, projects a state of mind which is indifferent towards the superfluous desires and needs or the urge to acquire resources 16 in vast proportions. Peace denotes the willpower of the individual in Universal Human Values disconnecting himself from the superficial elements of society and lead a life of freedom and balance. ‘Non-violence’ reflects the tendency of an individual in acquiring something without the need for conflict or violating anything. It can be considered as one of the highest achievements of humans living in a state of harmony. Non-violence, however, also requires love in order to ensure that the actions of an individual do not violate anything and there is a state of balance. ‘Righteous conduct’, on the other hand, focuses on the actions of the individual and to what degree it is not biased, based on conscious decision- making that is rational and fair. This is another important fundamental of human values that encourages collective engagement of people in a society. Thus, what can be seen in regard to human values is that these fundamentals are the core which shape human values and also redefine to be universally accepted across the globe. Since these fundamentals are interlinked, the existence of one also influences the existence of other, which in turn defines the human values in absolute. 1.6 RELEVANCE OF HUMAN VALUES The ability of humans to comprehend the environment and adapt to the changes, whether it be physical or mental is astonishing. Humans have