Schneider's Dynamic Model PDF

Schneider’s Dynamic Model Parameters 1. Extralinguistic factors/Sociopolitical Backgroung (like historical events and The evolution of Postcolonial Englishes and the political situation), 2. Characteristic identity constructions on the sides of the parties involve...

Schneider’s Dynamic Model Parameters 1. Extralinguistic factors/Sociopolitical Backgroung (like historical events and The evolution of Postcolonial Englishes and the political situation), 2. Characteristic identity constructions on the sides of the parties involved. 3. Sociolinguistic determinants of the contact setting (conditions of language contact, language use , and language attitudes) 4. Structural effects to emerge in the form(s) of the language variety/-ies involved. Phase 1: Foundation 1.1. Sociopolitical background In the initial stage English is brought to a new territory by a significant group of settlers, and begins to be used on a regular basis in a country which was not English-speaking before. Relationships between STL and IDG groups may be anything from friendly to hostile. 1.2 Identity constructions As a consequence of the migration process, both groups simply become aware of the other’s existence, which establishes the starting point of the subsequent modifications. Both the IDG and the STL group see themselves as clearly distinct from the ‘‘other, respectively. 1.3 Sociolinguistic conditions At this stage contact operates on two levels, independently of each other at first, in two different types of linguistic ecologies. 1. The first type, strictly within the STL stream, is dialect contact, resulting from the fact that in migration speakers from different regions in Britain get in touch with each other. 2. The second type originates from the interaction between the settlers and the indigenous population and gets the language- contact process rolling. In the beginning contact between the settlers and speakers of indigenous languages serves exclusively utilitarian purposes and therefore tends to remain restricted, impeded by the inability to understand each other and by different concerns and needs: each group remains, operates, and continues to communicate predominantly within its own confines. Cross-cultural communication is required, but only to a limited extent and for specialized purposes (like trading, and negotiating territorial and other mutually relevant rights and obligations). IDG strand marginal bilingualism develops, predominantly among a minority of the local population, with speakers who interact with the immigrants as traders, translators, or guides, or in some political function. 1.4 Linguistic effect: a. ‘‘koine í zation,’ In the course of time speakers will mutually adjust their pronunciation and lexical usage to facilitate understanding. ‘‘middle- of-the-road’’ variety b. Toponymic Borrowing Names for places are amongst the earliest, most frequent, and most persistent borrowings in such situations. c. Incipient Pidginization Newly emerging contact between people who do not share a language requires a lingua franca, and if none is available and the contact remains restricted and relatively short lived, a reduced code. Phase 2: Exonormative stabilization 2.1 Sociopolitical background After a while, colonies or settlers’ com- munities tend to stabilize politically, normally under foreign, i.e. mostly British, dominance. Colonies (or dependent territories varying in legal status) are established. English is now regularly spoken in a new environ- ment, and it is formally established as the language of administration, education, the legal system, etc., at least in some regions and strata of society 2.2 Identity constructions It can be assumed that at this stage the identity of the local British community expands to encompass something like ‘‘British plus’’: genuinely British no doubt, but seasoned with the addi- tional flavor of the colonial experience which those who stayed ‘‘home’’ do not share. Britis-cum-local While ‘‘home’’ and, most likely, the intention to return there remain the main source of identity for these British expatriates, in reality for many of them this notion increasingly turns into an ‘‘imagined territory of a myth of return’’ (Jenkins 1996:27). Children of mixed ethnic parentage are born- locally born generations develop a hybrid cultural identity encompassing both lines of heritage for themselves. SEGREGATIONAL ELITISM starts. 2.3 Sociolinguistic conditions Consequently, the IDG strand develop- ment is typically marked by the fact that bilingualism, i.e. familiarity with English in addition to competence in at least one of the indigenous languages, spreads among the indigenous population, through education or increased contacts with speakers of the colonial language (especially in trade and exploitation colonization). 2.4 Linguistic Effects In the STL strand, underneath the assumption of being representatives of British culture on foreign soil, changes and adjustments to the local environment start to creep in and slowly but gradually modify the nature of English as spoken in a new country: English in its spoken form begins to move toward a local language variety. Borrowing names, as recorded in the previous stage, may be taken to affect language elements which func- tion merely referentially and are thus not structurally relevant in the narrow sense. Phase 3: Nativization A new identity reflecting the current state of affairs, combining the old and the new, is in full swing. 3.1 Sociopolitical background In the STL strand, this implies the transition from the acceptance of a distant mother country as the source of both political power and linguistic and cultural guidance to increasing independence – or at least a phase of striving toward it When the ‘‘mother country’’ is gradually not felt that much of a ‘‘mother’’ any longer, the offspring will start going their own ways, politically and linguistically – slowly and hesitantly at first, gaining momentum and confidence as time passes by Characteristically, at this point independence and the relationship to the mother country are big issues in the political arena, with the usual clash to be expected between those who want changes imposed as soon as possible and those for whom any change of status seems unthinkable. At this stage many countries affected ultimately gain political independence, and others work toward it. 3.2 Identity constructions ‘‘semi-autonomy.’’ The gap between immigrant and indigenous population groups is significantly reduced at this stage: both parties con- sider themselves permanent residents of the same territory. Of course, differences in cultural backgrounds, ethnicity, language, prosperity, and lifestyle, and also status and political power are not wiped away all of a sudden, but they are gradually reduced in importance.  3.3 Sociolinguistic conditions By this time, contacts between both groups will occur commonly and on a regular daily basis, involving not only certain individuals but significant portions of both groups in various situations, roles, and contexts. Some degree of mutual accommodation is required by both parties for the contacts to be effective and successful. – However, the two communities are unlikely to be equal partners in the approximation and acculturation process: while the STL strand group also incorporates some elements of local culture in its identity construction and symbolization (including select linguistic elements), the labor of approx- imating each other tends to rest predominantly upon the IDG strand group. As Schumann (1978) points out, the major causal variable in second-language acquisition is ‘‘acculturation,’’ the degree to which an individual is socially and psychologically integrated into the target lan- guage group: Factors like the appreciation of English, its persistent presence with important functions, and the desire to maintain contacts with the former colonial power and to participate in international communication have the same effect as the physical presence of large numbers of English speakers The pressure to accommodate to English usually affects primarily the IDG strand people, leading to widespread second-language acquisition of English, and sometimes an almost complete language shift or even language death (as in the cases of the Maoris, many Aboriginal communities, and Native American tribes). The adoption of IDG strand features by STL strand speakers is more likely to occur in the lower social strata and in informal communication. During this phase we can frequently observe what has come to be known as the ‘‘complaint tradition’’ (see Milroy and Milroy 1985), the stereotypical statement by conservative language observers that linguistic usage keeps deteriorating, that in the new country ‘‘corrupt’’ usage can be heard which should be avoided. 3.4 Linguistic effects This stage results in the heaviest effects on the restructuring of the English language itself; it is at the heart of the birth of a new, formally distinct PCE. The ongoing changes are perhaps most conspicuous on the level of vocabulary, with a substantial proportion of words being used increasingly which are unknown to outsiders of the community, predominantly loans from indigenous languages. Heavy lexical borrowing continues, mainly but not exclusively for further culture-specific notions; loan words perme- ate the entire vocabulary and tend to be widely used and noted Phonology is another obvious case in point. IDG strand speakers will consistently show a marked local accent, which frequently can be identi- fied as transfer phenomena from the phonology of indigenous languages. Grammatical features of PCEs emerge A final factor frequently to be observed at this stage is the emergence of mixed codes Mixed codes apparently originate when the native language of the IDG strand is still strongly rooted in the community (and possibly receives official sup- port) and English also enjoys high prestige (but access to it is limited). Phase 4: Endonormative stabilization 4.1 Sociopolitical background This phase typically follows and presup- poses political independence: for a local linguistic norm to be accepted also in formal contexts, it is necessary that a community is entitled to decide language matters as affairs of its own. What is ultimately decisive is not only political independence but also, and more importantly, cultural self-reliance, essentially the new identity construction that follows political separation ‘‘Event X’ 4.2 Identity constructions 5 Members of the STL strand community now perceive themselves as members of a newly born nation, definitely distinct from their country of origin, and this regionally based identity construction includes the IDG strand community In a collective psychological sense, this is the moment of the birth of a new nation. We need to remember that ‘‘nations are mental constructs, ‘imagined communities’ ’’ which are con- structed discursively through emphasizing shared traits and ignoring inter- nal differences (Wodak et al. 1999:4). 4.3 Sociolinguistic conditions The existence of a new language form is recognized, and this form has lost its former stigma and is positively evaluated. Ultimately, the community reaches an understanding that the new local norm, distinct from the norms of the original colonizers, will also be accepted as adequate in formal usage (Newbrook 1997:236). ‘‘English in X’’ type by a newly coined ‘‘X English.’’ The former marks the dialect as just a variant without a discrete character of its own, while the latter credits it with the status of a distinct type, set apart from and essentially on equal terms with all others. 4.4 Linguistic effects It is characteristic of this phase that the new indigenous language variety is perceived as remarkably homogeneous, By this time some, perhaps many, sometimes all mem- bers of indigenous ethnic groups have undergone a process of language shift, and in many, in fact too many cases the original indigenous lan- guages are endangered, sometimes extinct. dictionaries are an obvious case in point, and it is a characteristic trait of this phase that dictionaries of the respective PCEs are produced, Phase 5: Differentiation 5.1 Sociopolitical background self-dependence, an attitude of relying on one’s own strengths, with no need to be compared to anybody else’s. As a consequence of external stability, there is now room for internal differentiation 5.2 Identity constructions The citizens of a young nation no longer define themselves primarily as a single social entity in relation to the former colonial power but rather as a composite of subgroups, each being marked by an identity of its own. Within the overarching national identity, individuals therefore align and define themselves as members of smaller, sociolinguistically determined groups: as people of a certain gender, age, or ethnicity; through living in a certain area or locality; as members of a certain social group or stratum, and they derive primary as well as hybrid identities from these group member- ship patterns. In a sociological light Jenkins (1996:111) emphasizes the internal heterogeneity masked by umbrella-like ‘‘collective identities’’ under which diversity, almost always symbolized by language, flourishes. The expression of ‘‘group identification and social categorization’’ (111) becom 5.3 Sociolinguistic conditions One’s identity construction determines one’s patterns of socialization: ‘‘birds of a feather flock together.’’ Hence, at this stage an individual’s contacts are strongly determined by the indi- vidual’s social networks, within which the density of communicative inter- actions is highest (Milroy 2002). 5.4 Linguistic effects The stage of dialect birth New varieties of the formerly new variety emerge, as carriers of new group identities within the overall community: regional and social dialects, linguistic markers (accents, lexical expressions, and structural patterns) which carry a diagnostic function only within the new country emerge Linguistic imperialism Refers to the imposition of a dominant language on people with a different language. One of the best-known examples is the spread of English across the world. References Schneider, E. (2007). Postcolonial English: Varieties around the world. Cambridge University Press 69