Sociolinguistics: Introduction and Variation PDF

**Intro to sociolinguistics** Language is connected to identity; however, language is not a mirror reflection of identity. It is merely a suggestion. - There are ideologies and power relations attached to each way of speaking. - Social factors (geographical location, race, class, gender,...

**Intro to sociolinguistics** Language is connected to identity; however, language is not a mirror reflection of identity. It is merely a suggestion. - There are ideologies and power relations attached to each way of speaking. - Social factors (geographical location, race, class, gender, etc.) explain why people speak differently. What is sociolinguistics? - The study of language in society. - It is the study of how differently we speak, e.g. Joburg Zulu vs. Natal Zulu. - How we communicate and transmit meaning. - Language is a social practice - Sociolinguists study: - How we use language to perform different identities. - How ways of speaking become language. - The way we use language to convey certain ideas and beliefs. Language variation - Languages change. - Is variation random or structured according to certain parameters? Dialect = pronunciation + vocabulary and grammar - Lobedu, Kaaps Afrikaans - Standard language: the dialect with the highest prestige in a particular context - Standard language is not naturally given. It is the result of processes over time where some varieties have been chosen and elevated to the status of standard. - Dialects are ways of communicating whose speakers have less political power and prestige than others. - Borders may be why people speak in a similar way but are characterised as being different. - How are dialects differentiated? - Geographical space: language evolves in various environments = regional dialect - Regional dialect Geographical locations and maps There are different varieties and variations in the language Variations always exist - Dialectology: map variations + linguistic diversity - Pilot survey - Localities involved - Which items will be investigated Phonetics Vocabulary Semantics Grammar - Data analysis - Map drawing - There are isoglosses that represent phonological distribution and lexical distribution - Social class: wealth and income influences how you speak -- social dialects (socialects). Accent = pronunciation - American vs. Australian vs. South African English Language to languages - Naming languages gives them status, they are recognised. - It creates borders -- X people speak X language. - Social institutions name languages in efforts to homogenise and diversify societies. Standard language - Some variants of languages are chosen and elevated to standard. What is the difference between dialect and accent? **Dialects and slangs** Dialects - A standard language was once a dialect - Variationist sociolinguists differentiate dialects from one another. - Dutch and German are 2 distinct languages, however, you find that the dialects spoken along the border are very similar. - Differentiation is more socio-political than linguistic. Slang - A highly informal age-specific variation within a language. - Language games: manipulating spoken words to conceal information from others -- making it incomprehensible to the untrained ear. They are not widely spoken. - Slangs are used in everyday conversation. Language variety. - Slang is associated with youth - Challenge of social norms - Secretiveness - Negative attitudes - Representation of change - Moving away from structure, tradition and norms - Functions: fun, linguistic innovation, signalling group identity and fostering solidarity - Innovation of words, grammar and pronunciation - Slang = identity marker + delineator of groups - Vocab items differ across generations - Ephemeral linguistic innovation: change faster than standard language. Slang vs. jargon - These are 2 different concepts. - Jargon: the technical vocabulary of a particular profession. It allows users to talk precisely about technical issues in the given field. - It excludes non-group members in the same way as slang. **Language families and typologies** Language varieties - A census is conducted for institutions to decide which languages to teach in schools. - How many languages are there in the world? - Depends on if we're counting dialects or languages - Splitter: varieties of the same language as a distinct language -- undercounts. - Lumper: treats varieties simply as dialects -- over counts. Language families - It is difficult to tell where a language begins and ends. - We speak differently but don't have different languages. Language classification - Even though we don't have to count languages, we still need to describe and describe them. - Taxonomies are classification systems. - Languages are grouped into families according to their degree of diachronic relatedness. - Parents and daughters - Cognates: words that are genetically related -- descend from the same ancestral root or word. - Borrowing: all languages borrow words to refer to new items or ideas. - Language family: a set of languages deriving from a common ancestor called the proto-language of that family, - Structural characteristics are another way to classify languages of the world. - Grammar **Social dialectology** Language and social class - We can use social class as a means to differentiate language variation. - Social class: income and lifestyle. - People have different lifestyles based on their income -- there are things they can and can't afford. - Each variation linked to class is called a sociolect. Trudgill's triangle Sociolects - Documented by sociolinguists. - Labov -- sociolects in a NYC department store on the upper floors vs lower floors. - A similar method is used for dialectology. - People spoke differently on different floors but it cannot be concluded that people of the upper-class for sure spoke differently. - Some lower-class people were speaking with an upper-class accent on the upper floors. This is an example of style. - People perform certain identities while speaking. To sum up - Social space has an impact on language change more than social class. - A particular variation suggests a particular social class rather than their social class. - Social class and the way you speak are not related. How you speak determines the social identity you wish to be associated with. **Language variation and change** - Early sociolinguists were concerned about how language changes occur. - Variation precedes change -- very long, slow process. - Changes and variants are taken on differently by various social groups according to their attitudes and choices. - What has structurally changed within the language? - Language variation always happens but it doesn't necessarily lead to change. Variationist approach to change - Tracking down change means paying attention to both the language and social system (Weinreich, Labov, Herzog). Weinreich et al. model of language (sound) change - The basis of linguistic change is low-level phonetic variability of speech that members of the speech community do not notice. - One variable becomes socially significant as a marker of group identification or stylistic level -- people in the community take on this difference. - Minor variations such as phonetic becomes a linguistic variation. - The variant may be extended to new social groups and spread to the vocabulary system of the language but may also be blocked. - Finally, it will become part of the community repertoire -- change is completed. - Varied pronunciation = spelling differences - Borrowing occurs - Language change occurs Two types of change - From above - Variants are introduced by a dominant social class. - Style is applied here -- usually borrowed from speech communities of higher classes - From below - Sounds and words form part of the vernacular -- make pronunciation easier "trus' me" "gonna" - Usually accepted among working-class dialects but suppressed by middle class. Lexical diffusion - How changes occur internally. - One word to the grouping of words. - Which groups initiate and spread sounds and how does change spread within the language? - Sound occurs word by word - Change does not occur in all words and environments simultaneously. - It is incorporated in some words before others because some environments are more conductive. - S-curve - Language change over time + amount of words 1. New pronunciation of a few common words -- of importance to a subgroup or subculture. 2. The change rapidly spreads to other words 3. Change shows down, affecting the last few words Gravity model - Dialectologists are also interested in how change spreads across communities. - Bodies with a larger mass exert a gravitational influence over smaller ones in their vicinity. - Trudgill (1994) -- gravity model Mass = population size Linguistic influence (how they speak) is driven by proximity and population size. KZN Zulu and Joburg Zulu -- the closer you are to a place geographically, the more influenced your speak will be. Change occurs in large centres before influencing the linguistic features of a small town. In the same breath, the small town is influenced more by a small town nearby. Labov's cascade model - Showed how a term diffused from a larger city to a smaller one - Hoagie, hoogie - From Philadelphia to Pittsburgh (5 year span) - Material factor: distributor Real- and apparent-time study of variables - It is too costly and time-consuming to do studies of linguistic change over a long period. - Apparent time studies: the study of a community over a short period to examine whether any exchange occurs. - Labov's study was an apparent time study. - Fowler and Macdonald were real-time studies. Language variation: the 3 waves 1. First wave - Correlations between linguistic variation and sociodemographic categories (Labov) 2. Second wave - Ethnographic methods to identify local categories. 3. Third wave - Variation constructs social meaning -- styles. - Some languages have more power than others. This varies according to location (Arabic in the Middle East and North Africa). - This importance arises from the history of colonisation, wars, suppression of people and their languages, nation-building, reducing the influence of languages tied to former regimes, etc. - If a language is of high prestige, the language is powerful. - Prestige is associated with having proficiency in the language. - LWC = language of wider communication -- English, French, Arabic, Spanish. - LWCs are seen as languages of power because they are used as lingua francas by people who use different first languages and are used in all domains (prestigious) such as education, government, business and media. Language standardisation - Language varieties are unequal in status and prestige. - Standardisation is the process whereby languages change their position in society from low status to high prestige. - Standardisation processes are unique. - Socio-historical process and linguistic development. - The standard language is generally the variety for writing and has undergone regulation and codification (grammar and dictionaries). - This resolves the communication needs of a speech community. - Standard language = the variety usually associated with the subgroup with the highest social status and societal authority. - The existence of a standard variety implies that there are non-standard varieties. Processes of language standardisation - Selection - Usually the first step is selecting the dialect to be used as the standard form. - Society may use various dialects and unify and harmonise them to form the standard form. - Harmonisation: the creation of a common system of representation for several related linguistic varieties. - It is impossible to consult with all speakers of a community, thus some will feel excluded. - Harmonisation may bring ethnic tensions among speakers of a language. - Codification - Development of a writing system. - Lexicographers decide which words to include, exclude, and to mark as dialectal. - Dictionaries prescribe the norms and correct pronunciation of words (normative function) - The level of coordination is judged by the number of dictionaries. - Elaboration - Language cultivation or language modernisation. - The process of borrowing words from other languages in order to make up for lack of terms and fix communication issues. - These words are borrowed and then phonologically changed. - Acceptance - The most important stage. - The community has to accept the selected, codified and elaborated variant as its standard. - This can lead to children at the school level struggling to use the standard language at school as their home variety differs. For a variety to be standardised, there needs to be: - A desire - A dialect needs to be selected - Codification needs to occur - Elaboration - Acceptance The South African language Policy - The languages added to the constitution in 1994 were standardised mid-apartheid. - The government desired to develop language as distinctive markers of ethnic identity to divide and rule. - Some languages still need to go through the re-codification process to be used in literature, media and other public forms. isiXhosa as a standard language - The four steps of language standardisation are selection, codification, elaboration, and acceptance. Of the more than 12 varieties of isiXhosa that existed, Ngqika and Gcaleka were the only two varieties selected for codification. Thereafter, they were harmonised and elevated to what is known as standard isiXhosa. Xhosa literature was established in 1824, followed by the production of dictionaries. It has now been accepted as a language of instruction and speech in communities. Selection through harmonisation. Missionaries selected 2 dialects. Codification: orthography and dictionaries. Acceptance: new standard used in a high function. English as a standard language - Standard English is based on a dialect, many others were not included in the standardisation process. This dialect thus gained status and any other variety lost status. - Standard English is codified in dictionaries and grammar books and is most evident in written forms. - Language's association with prestige and power influence the negative attitudes conveyed towards Scouse English because of the privilege held by Standard English. Scouse English is perceived as a lower-class dialect than Standard English. Media influence and biases within society exacerbate these attitudes. Scouse English is a variety. It wasn't included in the selection process for the standardisation of English (the London variety was). This, during the standardisation of English, the London variety gained status while the Scouse variety lost status. Language ideologies in language standardisation - A language variety must be used in high function and have prestige for it to be become a standard. - Economic, socio-political or linguistic factors mean the speakers happen to be the most powerful or socially prestigious. - Language ideologies: shared beliefs about language varieties that build up in societies over time which determine the way people perceive and understand these varieties and the roles they play in society. - They affect how people see the speakers of the varieties -- which is why some languages are seen as better than others. - Language attitude: personal belief about language. **Language Choice, Code-switching and Bilingualism** Multilingual -- Bilingual - Bilingualism: the proficiency in two or more languages. Individual bilingualism Societal bilingualism - Monolingualism: the proficiency in one language. - There more bi- than monolingual people in the world. - Monolingualism can either be seen as the norm or as being deviant depending on the context. Proficiency - The ability of an individual to speak or perform in an acquired language. - Some possibilities of bilingual proficiency: - Native-like control of all languages. - Regular use of two languages with high proficiency but less competent in one language. - In the South African context, one may have oral competence but limited to no literacy in some languages. This means having the ability to speak fluently but not being able to read or write in that language. Multilingualism - It is uncommon for multilinguals to have balanced, native-like command of all the languages in their repertoire. - They have varying degrees of command. - Multilingualism is the norm in most societies due to migration. - They imply that patterns of communication among speakers result in many language practices. - Monolingual societies only exist 'on paper' due to language policies, which limit countries to one official language, and language standardisation. - Bilingual people in multilingual areas often move back and forth between languages or dialects -- this is known as code-switching. - This happens in conversation more than in writing. Code-switching - Multilinguals develop competence in each of the codes to the extent that they need it. - Context determines language choice. - Your language choices are part of the social identity you claim for yourself -- you must find out who uses what, when and for what purpose if you are to be socially competent. - Importance of context. - It can happen without realising. - Functions: - Hide fluency or memory problems in the second language. - Switching from native to formal situations. - Exert control between parents and children -- children will speak to their friends in a more informal manner. - Align speakers with others in specific situations -- aligning as a member of a group. - Announce specific identities and create certain meanings. - Express something using terms non-existing in the second language. - Examples of code-switching: - Code-switching in the same sentence is known as code-mixing. - Code-switching between different language varieties or accents. - Code-switching between culture for greetings. Code-switching pt.2 - Code = a language variety. - People in bilingual or multilingual contexts often engage in language activities such as CM or CS. - 4 forms of language mixing: 1. Historical borrowing -- over time 2. Bilingual borrowing -- words from the dominant language are used in the community's language. 3. Code-switching -- the use of more than one language during conversation 4. Code mixing -- when users alternate language codes within a sentence or clause. - Code-switching and mixing require proficiency in two or more codes. - Strategies for code-switching in educational settings: - Emphasise something - Change topic of conversation - Repeat information - Clarify information - Translate Language practice and languaging - Sociolinguists used to study the form and structure of language variety. - Now, their focus is on the dynamic activities and processes of using language (how people negotiate or make meaning in multilingual settings) - They question what the speakers is actually doing with language. - Languages are not viewed as separated but as integrated systems. Translanguaging - A new term which results from no longer seeing languages as separate entities. - Focuses more on the processes which people use in order to move back and forth between languages that they know and use in daily life. - Communication strategies to negotiate meaning in linguistically diverse settings. **Pidgins and Creoles** - Used as marginal languages with less linguistic value. Pidgins - Born out of language contact. - People speaking different languages will co-create their own language in order to understand each other. Creoles - A new generation of speakers starts speaking a pidgin as their first language. The vocabulary is supplied by the parent languages. - Colonialism played a role in this. - Majority of creoles are spoke in former slave-holding societies. - Vertical communication between master and slave - Horizontal communication between slave and slave. 1. Fort creoles - Fortified posts along the west African coast 2. Plantation creoles - More numerous -- New World colonies under the dominance of European languages. Lingua Franca - A second or third language spoken by two people who do not have the same mother tongue. **Language, Gender and Sexuality** Gender and sexuality - Language, gender and sexuality studies (LGS) - A recent field of sociolinguistic study. - Trans-disciplinary: linguistic and gender studies, queer studies, gay and lesbian studies, anthropology, sociology, etc. Introduction - Gender is one of the central organising principles around which social life revolves. - Classifying sub-groups of human things is a cultural impulse. Sex - The dichotomy between males and females is based on biological/genetic characteristics. - Sex is binary. Gender - The social interpretation of biological differences between males and females which include an array of norms about what counts as 'proper' man or woman in a given society. - Culture specific and historically situated. - Continuum. - Looks at masculinity and femininity. - There are different ways and norms that determine what counts as 'masculine' ad 'feminine' in a given culture at a given historical moment. - Studying the language used in relation to gender helps account for what is masculine/feminine. Language and Gender studies - Three models to study language and gender pre-1990: - Deficit -- up till early 70s - There were power imbalances between men and women -- women were seen as inferior to men. - Women's language = powerless language (grammar, pronunciation, swearing taboo language) - Dominance -- mid 70s till the 90s - Men were seen as superior due to domination. - Language reflects social inequalities - As a result of patriarchy, meaning is defined by men. - Women are seen as 'conversational shitworkers' providing conversational support. - Difference -- 80s - Equal but different Women and men display different speech patterns because they grow up in different sub-cultures leading to miscommunication - Women = rapport talk Men = report talk - Offering of input to other speakers and talk about feelings (rapport) vs giving information and stating events (report). - Men compete. - Women co-operate. Critiques of the DDD models - Armchair theorising - Essentialised categories - Reinforce differences and paint gender as binary - Fail to explain why men and women are socialised in different sub-cultures Sexuality - The erotic desire and practice of sex is universal. - The ways we make sense of sex, categorise and discipline it culturally and historically situated. Language and sexuality - The study of language and sexuality is an inquiry into the role played by language in producing and organising sex as a meaningful domain of human experience. - For sex to sexual identities. - Language plays a major role in the construction of these identities. Sexual identity - A social status based on the individual's self-definition as heterosexual, gay, lesbian, etc. - This is a recent Western trend -- 19^th^ century - Homosexual practices in SA began as early as 20^th^ century and homosexual identity much later. Language and sexuality studies - Gay language as anti-language -- a coded way of using otherwise familiar words which is designed to exclude outsiders. - Focus on the differences between the language of homosexuals and the language of heterosexuals -- they speak different to one another. - 'Natural way' of speaking based on sexual preference. - Gayspeak: an act of identity (Gay Male and Lesbian Communication) -- 80s to mid 90s - Avoiding gender references, gender inversion (she/he), re-appropriation of derogatory terms (queer). - Agency of the speaker -- speaking in a specific way on purpose for identification. Critiques - Focus on fixed sexual identities. - Fails to address the issue of desire. - Conflation of sexuality and sexual identities. - Gay language rather than language practices allow people to define their sexual practices. - Language variation in SA - isiNgqumo Often associated with gay Zulu men in KZN Used to gain a sense of belonging -- community - Gayle: coded language used by the LGBTQI+ community in the cape