Sociolinguistics Mid-Term PDF

**Unit 1** **Sociolinguistics:** The study of the relationship between language and context in which it is used. **Sociolinguists**: study the relationship between language and society. They are interested in explaining why we speak differently in different social contexts, and they are concerned...

**Unit 1** **Sociolinguistics:** The study of the relationship between language and context in which it is used. **Sociolinguists**: study the relationship between language and society. They are interested in explaining why we speak differently in different social contexts, and they are concerned with identifying the social functions of language and the ways it is used to convey social meaning. **Linguistic variation** can provide **social** information.  **Our linguistic choices are affected by:** 1\. Who can hear us.      2. Where we are talking.       3. How we feel.  **Social Dimensions (or social factors affecting code choice):** 1\. The **social distance**: scale concerned with participant relationships. 2\. The **status scale**: concerned with participant relationships. 3\. The **formality scale**: relating to the setting or type of interaction. 4\. The **functional scale**: relating to the purposes or topic of interaction. **Social Factors:** 1- [The participants]: a. Who is speaking? (speaker, writer)  b\. Who are they speaking **to**? (listener, reader) 2- [The **setting** or social context of the interaction]:  **Where** are they speaking?  3- [The **topic**]: **What** is being talked about? 4- [The **function**]: **Why** are they speaking? These language functions include **giving information, expressing feeling, giving directive, asking for, maintaining social contact**. **Speech function**: a way of someone delivering ideas in communication to make listeners understand the ideas well. **Language serves many functions but mainly two:** 1\. Give objective information: Referential function 2\. Express feelings: Affective function - The more formal the language is, the more distance there is between the participants. When distance INCREASES, solidarity DECREASES. - The less formal the language is, the less distance between the participants. When distance DECREASES, solidarity INCREASES.  - Our speech can have both functions but one function will dominate. The more referential information a message conveys, the less it tends to express the speaker's feelings and vice versa. **Linguistic\\verbal repertoire**: In any community the distinguishable varieties or codes (another term sometimes used for this concept) which are available for use in different social contexts form a kind of repertoire of available options. The members of each community have their distinctive linguistic or verbal repertoires. In other words, in every community there is a range of varieties from which people select according to the context in which they are communicating. In monolingual communities these take the form of different styles and dialects. **Style:** is a set of linguistic variants with specific social meanings. **Dialect**: It is a matter of pronunciation differences, or vocabulary choices, or grammatical variation. **Variety\\code**: refers to any set of linguistic forms which patterns according to social factors. A variety is a set of linguistic forms used under specific social circumstances, i.e., with a distinctive social distribution. Variety is therefore a broad term which includes [different accents], [different linguistic styles], [different dialects] and [even different languages] which contrast with each other for social reasons.  Participants use a specific linguistic choice to convey social information. More formal varieties -- and especially distinctive written varieties -- may involve more conscious learning, but most varieties in a person's linguistic repertoire are acquired with little conscious effort. **Speech community:** A group of people who share a set of norms and expectations regarding the use of language.  **Unit 2** **Domain**: a term popularized by Joshua Fishman, an American sociolinguist. A domain of language use involves typical interactions between typical participants in typical settings. Domain is clearly a very general concept which draws on three important social factors in code choice -- **participants**, **setting** and **topic**. Domain of language use: **Domain   addressee setting     topic                   variety\\ code** *Family   parent home      planning for family party    * ** ***\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--* **Diglossia**: a situation in which two languages (or two varieties of the same language) are used under different conditions within a community, often by the same speakers. Diglossia has been described as a stable situation. The term is usually applied to languages with distinct 'high' and 'low' (colloquial) varieties, such as Arabic. Diglossia has three crucial features: 1\. Two distinct varieties of the same language are used in the community, with one regarded as a high (or H) variety and the other a low (or L) variety.  2\. Each variety is used for quite distinct functions; H and L complement each other.  3\. No one uses the H variety in everyday conversation. **H and L varieties:** The H variety is the code associated with education, government, religion, and other institutional domains. No one uses H for everyday interaction. Often the grammar of H is morphologically more complicated.  The L variety is the code used for daily communication within the family and in other informal domains of interaction.  Most of the vocabulary of H and L is the same. But, not surprisingly since it is used in more formal domains, the H vocabulary includes many more formal and technical terms. In most diglossia situations the H form would not occur in everyday conversation, and the L form would generally seem odd in writing.   People generally admire the H variety even when they can't understand it. Attitudes to it are usually very respectful.It has prestige in the sense of high status. These attitudes are reinforced by the fact that the H variety is the one which is described and 'fixed', or standardized, in grammar books and dictionaries. People generally do not think of the L variety as worth describing. However, attitudes to the L variety are varied and often ambivalent. The H variety is generally the prestige variety, but people may also be attached to and admire the L variety. **Bilingualism with and without diglossia:** Diglossia is a characteristic of speech [communities] rather than [individuals]. Individuals may be bilingual. Societies or communities are diglossic. A few communities qualified as diglossic.  1\. [Both diglossia and bilingualism]: refers to a situation where society is diglossic, two languages are required to cover the full range of domains , and (most) individuals are bilingual. 2- [Bilingualism without diglossia]: describes situations where individuals are bilingual, but there is no community-wide functional differentiation in the use of their languages. 3- [Diglossia without bilingualism]: describes the situation of politically united groups where two languages are used for different functions, but by largely different speech communities. 4- [Neither diglossia nor bilingualism:] describes the situation of monolingual groups, and Fishman suggests this is typical of isolated ethnic communities where there is little contact with other linguistic groups. The term **polyglossia** has been used for situations where a community regularly uses more than three languages. **Polyglossia** is a term for describing situations where a number of distinct codes or varieties are used for clearly distinct purposes or in clearly distinguishable situations.  The **switch:** is simply an interjection or a linguistic tag in the other language which serves as an ethnic identity marker. When people switch from one code to another for reasons which can be clearly identified, it is sometimes called **situational switching**. **Functions of code switching:** 1. Solidarity marker between speakers (friendship). 2. Distance speaker from those they are talking to. 3. illustrate different kinds of relationships between speakers (formal-informal). 4. Change the topic = change the relationship between speakers. 5. Express disapproval. 6. Lack of vocabulary.  People may switch code within a speech event to discuss a particular topic. Like using a technical term (switch from general topic to scientific topic). The code-switch corresponds exactly to the proverb being recited from another language or to say the exact words that a speaker said. People are often unaware of the fact that they code-switch. **Metaphorical switching**: Each of the codes represents or symbolizes a set of social meanings, and the speaker draws on the associations of each, just as people use metaphors to represent complex meanings. The term also reflects the fact that this kind of switching involves rhetorical skill. Skillful code-switching operates like a metaphor to enrich the communication.  **Code-mixing** suggests the speaker is mixing up codes indiscriminately or perhaps because of incompetence, whereas the switches are very well motivated in relation to the symbolic or social meanings of the two codes. This kind of rapid switching is itself a specific sociolinguistic variety; it has been labeled a **fused lect**.  It is a distinctive conversational style used among bilinguals and multilinguals -- a rich additional linguistic resource available to them. By switching between two or more codes, the speakers convey affective meaning as well as information. **Lexical borrowing** is obviously important to distinguish this kind of switching from switches which can be accounted for by *lack of vocabulary in a language* (to express a concept or describe an object for which there is no obvious word available in the language they are using). **Attitudes towards switching** between a dialect and a standard are **negative** in many monolingual communities, and **positive** in multilingual communities. **Borrowing** **Code-switching** ----------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Pronounced and used grammar in his L1.  Switch completely between two linguistic systems (sounds, grammar, vocabulary). No equivalent word in his L1 There\'s an equivalent in his L1. **Linguistic Constraints** -Switching occurs within sentences (***intra-sentential switching***) at points where the grammars of both languages match each other. This is called 'the equivalence constraint'. So, you may only switch between an adjective and a noun if both languages use the same order for that adjective and noun. -Switching occurs at sentence boundaries (**inter-sentential switching**). \- **Tag code-switching** occurs when using only short fixed phrases or tags in one language at the end of sentences in the other language. \- **Matrix language frame'** (MLF) which imposes structural constraints on code-switched utterances. So, for example, system morphemes (such as tense and aspect inflections) will always come from the matrix language; and the order in which morphemes may occur in code-switched utterances will be determined by the MLF. The other language is called the **embedded language**. -**Embedded language** refers to the language that is inserted within the matrix language. This could be a word, phrase, or clause from another language. **Example** Consider a speaker who primarily uses English but occasionally switches to Spanish: - **Matrix Language Frame**: \"I went to the store to buy a pan.\" - **Embedded Language**: In this case, \"pan\" (bread in Spanish) is embedded within the English structure. **Unit 3** **language shift:** when the language of the **MAJORITY** displaces the **MINORITY** mother tongue language over time in migrant communities or in communities under military occupation. Therefore, when language shift occurs, it shifts most of the time towards the language of the dominant group and the result could be the eradication of the local language. **What is the difference between language shift and language death?** **Language shift** generally refers to the process by which one language displaces another in the linguistic repertoire of a community. It also refers to the result of the process. **Language death** has occurred when a language is no longer spoken naturally anywhere in the world. **What factors lead to language shift?**  **A. Economic, social, and political factors:** 1-The dominant language is associated with social status and prestige. 2-Obtaining work is the obvious economic reason for learning another language. 3-The pressure of institutional domains such as schools and the media.  4- It happens when the community sees no reason to take active steps to maintain their ethnic language. They may not see it as offering any advantages to their children. **B. Demographic factors:** 1-Language shift is faster in urban areas than rural ones. 2- The size of the group is sometimes a critical factor that occurs faster in some groups than in others. 3-Intermarriage between groups can accelerate language shift.  **C. Attitudes and values:** Language shift is slower among communities where the minority language is highly valued. Therefore, when the language is seen as an important symbol of ethnic identity, it is generally maintained longer, and vice versa. **Why do you think people might want to maintain their minority language when they move to a new country?** Language is an important component of identity and culture for many groups. Maintaining their distinct identity and culture is usually important to a minority group member's self-esteem and this will affect the degree of success achieved in the society. **Bilingual education** is available throughout the education system in many areas. **Make a list of the factors which seem to contribute to language maintenance as opposed to those which favor language shift.** The following categories and which could contribute to language maintenance. 1.*The patterns of language use*:   the more domains in which the minority language can be used, the more chance there is of its being maintained. The possibilities will be largely determined by socio-economic factors, such as where the jobs are.   2.*Demographic factors*:   where a group is large enough to provide plenty of speakers and reasonably able to isolate itself from contact with the majority, at least in some domains, there is more chance of language maintenance. Where members of ethnic communities are living in the same area this too helps maintain minority languages longer. The frequency of contact with the homeland can also be important -- a large number of new immigrants, visitors or visits to the 'mother country' tend to contribute to language maintenance.   3.*Attitudes to the minority language*:   where it is valued and regarded with pride as identifying the minority group and expressing its distinctive culture, there is more chance of it being maintained. Where it has status in the community this will help too.  Support for language maintenance from bilingual peers can contribute to maintenance (just as pressure from monolingual majority group peers can lead to shift). **Language Death/ Language Loss:** When all the people who speak a language die, the language dies with them. So, with the spread of a majority group language into more and more domains, the number of contexts in which individuals use the ethnic language diminishes.  The language usually retreats until it is used only at home, and finally it is restricted to such personal activities as counting, praying and dreaming. **Dead Language:** It is a language that is NO LONGER communication. E.g. **Latin. Characteristics:** 1- Has NO native speakers. 2- Not used for spoken communication. **The causes can be:** 1- Natural: Diseases, natural disasters. 2- Man-made: Genocide, ethnic cleansing.  **Language Revival:** It is the attempt of the interested parties (individuals, cultures, governments) to recover the spoken use of the language. The process is also referred to as **Language Revitalization**. It happens when a community becomes aware that its language is in danger of disappearing and takes steps to revive it.   **How can a minority language be maintained?** 1- A language can be maintained and preserved, when it is highly valued as an important symbol of ethnic identity for the minority group.  2- If families from a minority group live near each other and see each other frequently, their interactions will help to maintain the language.  3- For emigrants from a minority group, the frequency of contact with the homeland can contribute to language maintenance.   4- Extended families with grandparents lead to continuity of the minority language. 5- Discourage the intermarriage leads to continuity of the minority language. Because marriage to a majority group member is the quickest way of ensuring a shift to the majority group language for the children.  6-Ensuring that the minority group language is used at formal settings such as schools or worship places will increase language maintenance.  7- Institutional support from domains such as education, law, administration, religion and the media can make a difference between the success and failure of maintaining a minority group language. Howard Giles and his colleagues use the concept of '**ethnolinguistic vitality**' suggest that we can predict the likelihood that a language will be maintained by measuring its ethnolinguistic vitality. Three components are involved: 1-The **status** of the language as indicated by attitudes towards it. 2-The **size of the group** who uses the language and their distribution (e.g. concentrated or scattered). 3-The extent to which the language enjoys **institutional support**. The concept of **ethnolinguistic vitality** is clearly very useful in studying language maintenance and shift, though devising satisfactory ways to measure the components is often a challenge. The concept of **ethnolinguistic vitality** also provides some ideas for those interested in slowing down or reversing language shift. **linguistic landscapes** It means looking at public texts in their physical and social context. The linguistic landscape can be a rich source of information about the sociolinguistic complexities of a community. Evidence of the vitality of a minority linguistic group may consist of restaurant signs, shop signs, church signs and advertisements in the minority language. Posters may provide information about public events or activities, also indicating the vibrancy of a particular minority linguistic community. **Language Revival ** Sometimes a community becomes aware that its language is in danger of disappearing and takes deliberate steps to revitalize it. It is sometimes argued that the success of such efforts will depend on how far language loss has occurred -- that there is a point of no return. But it seems very likely that more important are attitudinal factors such as how strongly people want to revive the language, and their reasons for doing so. Yet strong feelings of nationalism led to determined efforts by Israeli adults to use it on children, and as a result it has been successfully revived. Once again, *economic* factors are likely to be important in assessing the long-term outcomes of efforts at language maintenance and revival. Also, factors apparently result in a stable bilingual situation in some communities but language shift in others. This account has stressed the importance of economic, social, demographic and attitudinal factors. The degree of success a group has in resisting the intrusion of such a language into all domains, and especially the family domain, will generally account for the speed of language shift. Successful resistance requires conscious and determined effort to maintain the minority language. 'Wishing will not make it so.' Finally, it is also important to realize that pressures towards language shift occur mainly in countries where monolingualism is regarded as **normal**, and bilingualism is considered **unusual**. **Unit 4** **Variety (or sometimes code):** refers to any set of linguistic forms which patterns according to social factors **(Unit 1). Here are some language varieties:** 1- Vernacular   2- Standard Language     3- Lingua Franca 4- Pidgin          5- Creole                           6- Dead Language **1- Vernacular:** It is the variety of a language that has NOT been standardized or codified and which does NOT have an official status. It is spoken at home and used for informal situations. **Characteristics:** 1- Colloquial The most colloquial variety in one's repertoire.         2- Uncodified 3- Unregularized/ unstandardized and unwritten 4- Used for informal situations (L functions) 5-First language acquired. 6-Acquired at home.   7-Belong to different ethnic or [tribal] languages used by different groups in multilingual communities.   8-Not the official language of a country (used in a particular context). 9-Everyday language interactions.  10- Vernacular contrast with ritual, classical standardized languages. 11-Its function is relatively circumscribed. **Venularization:** The process of extending the use of a H function variety to include L functions.  **Example:** Hebrew. It was a language of religion with NO native speakers. It was developed by the government to become the National Language of Israel. It changed from a language used exclusively for rituals to become a language of everyday communication i.e. a vernacular language. **2- Standard Language:** It is the variety used for [writing] and which has undergone some degree of [regularization or codification]. **Characteristics:** 1- Prestigious variety.     2- Codified (i.e. written down in dictionaries). 3- Regularized (i.e. described in grammar book)  4- Used for formal Situations (H functions).   5- Diversity of L varieties. **Standard English:** It emerged in the 15th century as a regional dialect in London. The development of Standard English illustrates the 3 essential criteria for a standard language: 1- It was an influential or prestigious variety. Influential: used by the economically powerful merchant class. Prestigious: used in court. 2- It was codified. The introduction of the first printing press by Caxton accelerated its codification. He selected words and consulted the best writers of the upper class for judgment on usage. 3- It was used for H functions. Communication at Court, literature, administration... etc.   **World Englishes** -English as a second language for people= [outer-circle varieties]. E.g. Malaysia, Tanzania & India. -English is used by native speakers= [inner-circle varieties]. E.g. Australia & Canada. -English is as used as an additional or foreign language= [expanding circle]. E.g., China, Japan & Russia.    ** 3- Lingua Franca:** It is a language used for communication between people with DIFFERENT native languages. It's a regular [means of communication] between different linguistic groups in multilingual speech community whose [first languages] differ. Lingua Franca is an official language or the national language in a country. Lingua Franca is useful to displace vernaculars in multilingual communities. **Types of Lingua Franca:** **1- Natural:** Using real existing languages for communication. E.g. international languages such as English, French, Spanish... etc. **2- Pidginised:** Using a spontaneous blend of two real languages. All pidgins are lingua francas but not all lingua francas are pidgins. E.g. Hawaiian Pidgin. In some countries, the most useful and widely used **lingua franca** is an [official language] or [the national language]. **[Example]**: Tanzania: When people communicate with people from different tribes they use Swahili as it is the national language of the country.  **4- Pidgin:** It is a language developed because of the need for communication between people who have NO common language and have NO native speakers. It arises for economic reasons in a situation where there is a dominant language and another language. **Characteristics:** 1- Has NO native speakers. 2- Based on the dominant language (The prestigious language provides most of the vocabulary). 3- Developed for trade and used for that purpose only. 4- Arise when two groups with different languages are communicating in a situation where [there is also a third dominant language]. 5- The term "pidgin" derives from "business".  6- Used almost exclusively for **referential** not for affective functions. 7- Not use as a means of group identification or express social distance. 8- Main purpose is to signal how well educated you are. 9- Tends to reduce grammatical signal to a minimum.  10- Its vocabulary is polysemy. 11- Don't have high or prestige variety. 12-Have a short life. **To sum up, a pidgin language has three identifying characteristics:** 1\. it is used in restricted domains and functions. 2\. it has a simplified structure compared to the source languages and small vocabulary. 3\. it generally has low prestige and attracts negative attitudes -- especially from outsiders. ** The development of a pidgin requires:** 1- Prolonged regular contact between the different language communities. 2- A need for communication between them. 3- An absence of a widespread accessible common language between them. Pidgin languages are created from the combined efforts of people who speak different languages. ** Superstrate language (Lexifier):** The language that supplies most of the vocabulary. ** Substrate language:** The language with the most influence on the grammatical structures.   **Attitudes towards Pidgins:** 1- Pidgins do NOT have high status or prestige to those who do not speak them. They often seem like ridiculous languages. 2- People find them funny as they sound like baby-talk to them. They are often a good source of jokes. 3- People think that they CAN guess the meaning which can lead to serious misunderstandings. **5- Creole:** It is the result of when a pidgin becomes the native language of newly-born generations and acquires additional vocabulary and grammatical structures to serve their various necessary communicative needs. **E.g.** Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea. English is described as an example of creole. **Creolization**: the process by which a pidgin becomes a creole. **Characteristics:** 1- Has native speakers. 2- Used for social functions to express both referential and affective messages. 3- Linguistically complex. It has affixes and inflections. - Many pidgins turned into creoles because they were acquired by children as their first language and used in a wide range of domains. - As a pidgin develops into creoles they become more structurally regularized. - Many creoles are spoken by descendants of the African slaves in America and the Caribbean. - Once a creole is developed, there is NO evidence in their linguistic structure to reveal its pidgin origins. It has the same features as well-established languages because it became regularized. - Creoles are accepted as standard languages and even national and official languages. **Attitudes towards Creoles:** 1- Outsiders have negative attitudes towards creoles. 2- People who are monolingual in the creole express ;loyalty to creole. 3- When creoles are the H variety, they are appreciated by their speakers as they are considered prestigious. E.g. Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea. People use it when they apply for a job...etc. 4- When creoles are the L variety, speakers express strong loyalty to them because they show solidarity and best express their feelings. - **Differences between PIDGINS and CREOLES:** Pidgins and creoles are **real languages**, not baby-talk. They are used for [serious purposes], and each has a [describable and distinctive linguistic structure]. They are different in terms of their [range of functions], [structure] and [attributes] expressed towards them. NO native speakers.  DO have native speakers  ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ----------------------------------------------------------------------- Generally used for referential functions and has restricted domains. Used for trade and barter only. Used for both referential and affective functions (social functions). Limited vocabulary. NO inflections.  Expanded vocabulary with inflections.  Simple syntax and structures.  More sophisticated syntax and structures.  More difficult to be learned as they are full of structural irregularities.  Less difficult to be learned for they are more regularized. May die because they are created for specific functions. Less likely to die as they have native speakers.  **Decreolization is** the process in which creole can't be insuperable the standard variety because of social barriers. **Acrolect** The highest or most prestigious variety of a language, often closest to the standard form. E.g. I told him', used by educated middle class people. **Basilect** The lowest or least prestigious variety, often closely related to the creole or pidgin base language. E.g. "mi tell am', used by lower middle class people. **Mesolect** A middle variety that exhibits features of both the acrolect and basilect. E.g. 'I tell im' used by old and illiterate rural laborers. +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | **Social | **Solidarit | **Statius** | **Formality | **Function* | | dimension** | y** | | ** | * | | | | | | | | **Linguisti | | | | | | c | | | | | | Verities** | | | | | +=============+=============+=============+=============+=============+ | **Vernacula | Yes "Social | No "low" | No | Express | | r** | Identity" | | | solidarity | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | **Standard* | No | Yes | Yes | Formal | | * | | "prestigiou | | situation | | | | s" | | | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | **Lingua | NO | | NO | Express | | franca** | | | | referential | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | **Pidgin** | NO | Low | NO | Express | | | | | | referential | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | **Creole** | | Low | | Both | | | | | | express | | | | | | referential | | | | | | and | | | | | | affective | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ **Unit 5** **National Language:** It is the main language of a political, cultural and social unit.  It is generally developed and used as a **symbol** of national unity. **Functions:** 1- To identify the nation. 2- To unite the people.  The development of a single national language as a way of symbolizing the unity of a nation. **Official Language:** The language used by the government for administrative purposes and government business.  **Functions:** 1- Utilitarian rather than symbolic. **The difference between a national and an official language:** The [national language] is the one spoken by the majority of people in the country whereas the [official language] is the one used by the government for business.  In [a monolingual country], the national language is the [same] as the official language. In [a multilingual country], the government chooses the national and official languages based on how much each satisfies political and social goals as well as their formal functions.  When the government CHOOSES a variety as a national or official language, it does language **PLANNING**. **Language Planning:** The deliberate effort to influence the function, structure or acquisition of a language within a speech community. **Choosing a variety depends on factors like:** 1. The form of the variety.     2. The functions it serves.    3. The attitudes people hold towards it.  **Planning a language goes under four interrelated steps:** 1. *Selection*: Choosing the variety to be developed. 2. *Codification*: Standardizing its structural or linguistic features. This step is also called Corpus Planning. 3. *Elaboration*: Extending its functions for use in new domains. 4. *Securing its acceptance*: Enhancing its prestige and encouraging people to develop pride in it and loyalty towards it. This is known *as status planning* or *prestige planning*. **Steps in language planning** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | Form | Function and | | | | Attitudes | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | Social  | Selection | Acceptance | | | | | | Linguistic | Codification | Elaboration | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ Selecting the variety to be developed is often [a political decision].  [Linguists] help in pointing out the different linguistic problems represented by selecting one variety than another.  The acceptance of the chosen variety by the people will require the support of [politicians] and [socially prestigious groups].  '**Top-down'** **signs** are official signs, designed by public authorities, while '**bottom-up' signs** are non-official signs, usually produced by individuals or groups. **Purposes of Language Planning:** **1. Language Purification:** To prescribe the usage in order to preserve the "linguistic purity" of a language and protect it from foreign influences.  [Example]: Classical Arabic grammar books. **2. Language Revival:** To attempt to turn a language with few or no surviving native speakers back into a spoken means of communication.  [Example]: Hebrew **3. Language Reform:** To deliberately change specific aspects of a language such as orthography or grammar in order to facilitate its use.  [Example]: Chinese \[reduced the number of characters\] Turkish \[Changed characters from Arabic to Latin\]. **4. Language Spread:** To attempt to increase the number of speakers of one language at the expense of another.  [Example]: The spread of Spanish in Paraguay at the expense of the native language, Guarani. **5. Terminology Unification:** To develop unified terminologies, primarily in technical domains.  [Example]: The Arab Language Academy **6. Language Maintenance:** To preserve the use of a group's native language as a first or second language where pressure causes a decline in the status of the language.  [Example]: Welsh. Language academies, committees and commissions are interested in **language planning.**  Individuals can be language planners, too, mainly **sociolinguists** and **lexicographers**. **Lexicography:** The craft of writing, compiling or editing dictionaries. **The main concerns of language planners are:** 1\. Language codification           2. Vocabulary expansion  **Language Codification "Orthography":** In the past, the [church] was the main influence on the written form of the unwritten languages when they translated the Bible into them. **Missionaries** were good linguists whose job was to produce a spelling system that reflects the pronunciation of the language.  **When developing the spelling system, there were some problems like:** 1- Symbols did not correspond to the pronunciation (book, example 9, p:117). 2- Different views on how to indicate the length of a vowel (double vowel vs. macron) (book, example 10, p: 117). **When linguists want to expand the vocabulary of a variety to include the H or L functions it lacks, they either CHOOSE:** 1- A borrowed word from another language. 2- An equivalent in the same language which might not be well-known or with a slightly different meaning that can be adapted. 3- A newly created word from the same language.   **Corpus Planning ** ****refers to the [codification process] and [standardization of its structural] or linguistic features, a deliberate effort to develop and manage a language\'s lexicon, grammar, and usage. It involves various activities to enhance language functionality and adapt it to modern needs.** ** **Acquisition planning** Refers to sociolinguists may also make a contribution to organized efforts to spread a linguistic variety by increasing the number of its users.  The most widespread method of encouraging the acquisition of a language is to use the [education system], it is also known as language-in-education planning. Therefore, the education system plays a crucial role in acquisition planning. **Language planners** may be asked about issues with advice on target audiences, teaching methods, materials, and program evaluation. Considerations include the accessibility of language teaching and the balance between local and government influence in program development. **Language planners** generally focus on specific language problems. Their role is to develop a policy of language use which will solve the problems appropriately in particular speech communities. **Language planning** is defined most simply as [deliberate] language change. This covers a wide variety of activities including the [introduction of new labels for fruit], the [reform of spelling systems] and [the provision of advice on non-sexist terminology] such as *Ms* and *chairperson*. It also includes the [development of national languages and standard dialects.] **Language planning** aimed at assisting people to acquire a new variety then we need to consider the reasons for decisions about language use in each domain in order to decide whether these count as examples of acquisition planning. **Micro-Level Acquisition Planning Activities:** Focus: Individual learners and small groups. linguist's role at the micro-level of codification. For a company with a large number of workers from a minority ethnolinguistic group, the decision to use the language of this group in the workplace is important---this contribution to acquisition planning at the micro-level. **Macro-Level Acquisition Planning Activities:** Focus: National or regional language policies and frameworks. Language constructs aspects of [identity] and membership of particular groups as well as [nationhood].  Members of **monolingual speech communities** use this diversity to signal their [attitudes] and [allegiances] and construct their [social identities] and [relationships], just as **multilingual** **people** use their different languages for these purposes to signal their [ethnic group] membership and construct [solidarity] with other members of their tribe. **De facto status** means that a language is commonly used in practice, even if it is not officially recognized by law. For example, English might be the de facto language in countries where it is widely spoken for communication, business, or media, even if it\'s not legally the official language. **De jure status** refers to a language that is officially recognized by law or government policy. A language with de jure status is the legal official language of a country or region, mandated for use in government, education, or legal contexts. **This example from the book** "In New Zealand, ironically, although English is **de facto** (in fact or actuality) the official language of government and education, Maori and New Zealand Sign Language are the two languages which have legal or **de jure** status as official languages. **Status planning** (or **prestige planning**) refers to efforts aimed at altering the social standing, prestige, or function of a language within a community or country. It is a form of **language planning** that focuses on increasing or decreasing the role a language plays in society, typically through government policies or institutional reforms.