Sociolinguistics Week 1 Lecture Notes PDF

Sociolinguistics Week1: Introduction, History, and Basic Concepts 2nd September, 2024 Hong Kong Metropolitan University Dr. James Britton A little about me Hello! My name is James. I am originally from the UK, and I have lived in Hong Kong for nearly 10 years. My main linguistic interests are...

Sociolinguistics Week1: Introduction, History, and Basic Concepts 2nd September, 2024 Hong Kong Metropolitan University Dr. James Britton A little about me Hello! My name is James. I am originally from the UK, and I have lived in Hong Kong for nearly 10 years. My main linguistic interests are in embodied cognition and sensory perception in language cognition. I am also very interested in east Asian linguistics and culture, generally. The Coursebook An Introduction to Sociolinguistics – Janet Holmes and Nick Wilson Routledge, 2022 (6th Edition) Available online at the Metropolitan University library Introduction What we will cover in this course. Date Topic Lecture Tutorial 2 Sept 4 Sept Introduction: History and Basic Concepts 9 Sept 11 Sept Language Variation and Change I 16 Sept 18 Sept Language Variation and Change II 23 Sept 25 Sept Language Contact 30 Sept 2 Oct Multilingualism and Language Choice* 7 Oct 9 Oct Sociolinguistics and Education 14 Oct 16 Oct Mid-Term Quiz 21 Oct 23 Oct Language, the Media, and AI 28 Oct 30 Oct Language Policy and Planning 4 Nov 6 Nov Attitudes and Discrimination 11 Nov 13 Nov The Demographics of Language I 18 Nov 20 Nov The Demographics of Language II 25 Nov 27 Nov Sociolinguistic Fieldwork 2 Dec 4 Dec Final Summary and Review Introduction Today’s lecture Introduction: History and significant figures Core Concepts Case Studies Socilinguistic Applications Introduction What is Sociolinguistics? A blend of sociology and linguistics (unsurprisingly). Interested in the social and demographic nature of humans and how these affect language. Sociolinguistics is… “how people use language and what they use it for” (Meyerhoff, 2011, p. 2) Introduction: Some history Sociolinguistics as we know it today can be traced to the 1960s. Linguists of the time, such as William Labov and Basil Bernstein, investigated the effects of context and the background of speakers on their language use (Wodak, Johnstone, and Kerswill, 2013). Who you are, where you are, and what your intention is, are all important factors. Introduction: Some history Early sociolinguists challenged some of the newly formed theories of structuralist, formal linguistics (e.g., Chomsky). Language was argued to not just be a predetermined behaviour that is ‘acquired’. But rather a complex system with multiple contextual and need- based factors (Wodak et al., 2011). Introduction: Some history Labov’s New York department store study Three department stores in three New York neighbourhoods: - lower class - middle class - upper class Investigated variation in the use of ‘rhotic r’. This refers to the presence or absence of the alveolar approximant in words such as ‘car’. Introduction: Some history Labov’s New York department store study Various store staff were prompted to direct Labov to the ‘fourth floor’. Labov observed a clear difference between the posher and more working-class stores, as well as between the employees in their usage of the more ‘standard’ rhotic form. This study brought attention to linguistic variants – the variations of an underlying form (Hazen, 2013). Introduction: Some history Basil Bernstein: Language and social class Bernstein’s work focused on the UK and the role of class and institutions in influencing language use. He introduced the concept of a linguistic code that people use in various situations. In particular, he talked of elaborated codes and restricted codes with the former being used by the middle-class and the latter by working-class. Introduction: Some history Basil Bernstein: Language and social class Restricted code was characterized by limited vocabulary and short responses, as opposed to the longer and more detailed traits of elaborated code. In an educational context, this was argued to have positive effect on middle- class children and a negative effect on the working-class children (Wodak, Johnson, Kerswill, 2011; Holmes and Wilson, 2022) A more controversial, and later retracted, claim was that restricted codes could also limit cognitive abilities (Meyerhoff, 2011). Introduction: Some history This claim constituted a view close to linguistic determinism or linguistic relativity. A controversial theory first proposed by Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf. Proposed that language determines thought – this ‘strong’ version of the theory has now widely been rejected. However, these days there are many proponents of a ‘weaker’ version of this idea. Language may influence thought in certain ways. Cardinal and Relative Direction What do we mean here by ‘influence’? Take the case of cardinal vs. relative directions. In many languages, orientation is carried out through reference to ourselves (relative), as in left, right, back, front, etc. Other languages use a cardinal system referencing north, south, east, and west. Do you think this can have an effect on the way people behave in a given task? Cardinal and Relative Direction Imagine this scenario with a Now another table with a red house blue toy and a red house on a table. and a tree. Now just a table with the blue toy. If you were given the tree and asked to place it in a position that matched the previous location, where would you put it? Cardinal and Relative Direction This experiment was carried out on speakers of Australian aboriginal language Guugu Yimithirr by Steven Levinson (1997) and is also well described by Deutscher (2011). English speakers placed the tree like Speakers of Guugu Yimithirr placed so. the tree differently. Why do you think this happened? Cardinal and Relative Direction Both sets of speakers were correct. In the experiment, the tables and objects were in rooms opposite to each other in a way that was the same for English speakers with relative orientation. In terms of cardinal orientation, the position of the tree was seen to be south of the toy, and so was placed as such in the opposite room. Core Concepts Language Variation Sociolinguists and linguistics generally are very interested in language variation. This can refer to many different aspects of language use, for example: - phonetic variation (as in Labov’s work) - dialect/accent variation - gender - race/ethnicity - age Core Concepts Language Variation: Accommodation This is a very well-researched area in sociolinguistics. Variation characterized by a change in pronunciation and style towards that of the interlocutor. Accommodation may be very subtle to the point of being unconscious on the part of the speaker. It may also be overt and intentional. In some cases it can be misconstrued as simple imitation. Core Concepts Language Variation: Accommodation Example from Holmes and Wilson (2022, p. 346) Question: How do you think these words might vary and why might the travel agent do this? Core Concepts Some accommodation in action https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dovfYaQoPoY A BBC article on the same case: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-20508309 Core Concepts Language Variation: Accents and Dialects Much has been written and researched about the distinction between these two. Accent – variation at the level of phonetics and phonology (i.e., pronunciation), usually based on region. Dialect – a sub variety of a language, usually with some distinctive, morphology, syntax, and vocabulary. (Meyerhoff, 2011; Holmes, and Wilson, 2022) Core Concepts Language Variation: Shibolleth This term refers to a word or phrase that can be used to place someone’s geographical origin. From the biblical story of the war between Ephraimites and the Gileadites. The Gileadites were able to identify fleeing Ephraimites by their pronunciation of the word ‘shibboleth’, using /s/ rather than /ʃ/ (Meyerhoff, 2011). Can you think of any similar cases? Core Concepts Language Variation: Idiolects This refers to speaker’s unique usage of their language or dialect. An idiolect may be characterized by vocabulary, grammar, or pronunciation from a variety of sources. For example, growing up in a metropolitan city like Hong Kong or London may provide numerous cultural influences. Taking part in certain sports or games may also bring with it a unique forms of language for that community. Core Concepts Language Identity: Code switching/mixing The practice of changing variety or style of language based on the situation or need. This can even include changing the language completely within a sentence or dialogue. We can also refer to this domain-based or situation-based switching (Meyerhoff, 2011). Core Concepts Exercise: Code Switching (Meyerhoff, 2011) Consider a lawyer living in Honolulu, Hawaii. He uses standard American English at work where he dresses in a suit and tie. After work, when he is wearing casual clothes, he stops at a drug store and speaks to the store staff in Pidgin* – ‘Cuz, get dakine pukka beads here?’ (‘Hey mate, do you have any of those, like, surfer beads here?’) Why do you think he uses Pidgin in this context? Could he ever use Pidgin at work? * Pidgin is a term used to describe a highly localized/adapted variety of a language in a certain context. Core Concepts Language Change: Semantic Shift Language is constantly adapting and changing (despite efforts by some to ‘preserve’ certain varities. Change may happen in various ways, but semantic shift is perhaps a surprisingly common one. A very recent example is the word ‘gay’ which usually meant ‘happy’ up until around 100 years ago. The word was used in this sense as recently as 1961 by the artist Sam Cooke in the song ‘Twistin’ the night away’. Core Concepts Language Change: Semantic Shift Just for fun – What do you think the Old English word ‘sceo’ might have meant? A clue – it’s weather-related term. J https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sceo#:~:text=Old%20English,- Alternative%20forms&text=From%20Proto%2DWest%20Germanic%20 *skiw%C5%8D,ce%C3%B3%20(%E2%80%9Csky%E2%80%9D) Core Concepts Language Change: Semantic Derogation Language shift that results in a more negative association. This has been noted to be particularly common in negative terms directed towards women. There are also numerous cases of curse words that have developed from innocent/polite origins. Core Concepts Language Change: Semantic Derogation This table shows some examples of words that had completely different or positive meanings, which have since changed to be more negative (Meyerhoff, 2011). Core Concepts Language Change: Diffusion Sound change happens gradually between words, so previously distinct sounds become the same/similar. The vowels in ‘bear’ and ‘beer’ in New Zealand English are now mostly the same (Holmes and Wilson, 2022). Sounds may also be gradually dropped or not pronounced over a long period of time. For example, Japanese has dropped the ‘y’ in words beginning ‘ye’ Mj-bird, CC BY-SA 3.0 , via Wikimedia Commons Core Concepts Language Change Time for a quick poll: What is the past tense of ‘dive’? Dived or Dove? Case Study Peter Trudgill: Language change in Norwich, England Norwich is a small city of around 200,000 people in the east of England Trudgill carried out a real time study of change happening there during a 15-year period from 1968 to 1983. Certain vowels had merged completely during this time (Holmes and Wilson, 2022). User:(WT-shared) Burmesedays, SVG of the UK at Commons, Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection UK Maps, OpenStreetMap, CC BY-SA 3.0 , via Wikimedia Commons Case Study Peter Trudgill: Language change in Norwich, England Furthermore, another process was under way by 1983. This is now commonly known as th-fronting – process of swapping /θ/ for /f/. How do changes like this come about? Case Study Peter Trudgill: Language change in Norwich, England Language contact and social factors are at play in many cases. Norwich is within fairly easy reach from London (around 100 miles). Many features, such as th-fronting, originated in London and the south-east and. These varieties are associated with upper and middle classes and greater prestige (Holmes and Wilson, 2022). Case Study African American Language/English (AAL or AAE) African American English has developed a number of unique grammatical features. A prominent case is the presence or absence of the copula ‘be’. In most cases, this copula is dropped for AAL speakers, as the example below demonstrates (Holmes and Wilson, 2022) Case Study African American Language/English (AAL or AAE) Interestingly, the copula does reappear, but to signal a different grammatical relation (Holmes and Wilson, 2022). This usage shows that there is systematic patterns of usage. We can say that this usage has been grammaticalized. Case Study African American Language/English (AAL or AAE) Other distinctive features include: - increased double or multiple negation - consonant cluster reduction Users of AAL may not always use this variety or may pick and choose the features they want for specific contexts. Recent paper on Kamala Harris – Holliday (2024) Uses certain grammatical forms of AAE, but also subtle vowels shifts consistent with black identity. Berkley Article and Tiktok analysis Sociolinguistic Applications Language Policy – Revitalization of Welsh In Wales, UK., there has been an ongoing revitalization of Welsh. This includes Welsh language in schools, on television, parliament, and in road signage. These are all important domains for maintaining the status of a language. (Holmes and Wilson, 2022) Sociolinguistic Applications Language Policy – Revitalization of Welsh Sociolinguists play an important role in identifying areas of attention and maintaining revitalization efforts. For example, although Welsh is now widely taught in schools, people tend to use less of it as they get older. Therefore, the focus of modern policy needs (Holmes and Wilson, 2022) to shift to again to promoting bilingualism in the wider community (Meyerhoff, 2011). Sociolinguistic Applications Forensic Linguistics Sociolinguists and forensic linguistic specialists can play a very important role in criminal justice. For example, juries and witnesses may be prejudiced based on someone’s language variety or misconstrue a statement based on unfamiliarity. One example (Holmes and Wilson, 2022) Sociolinguistic Applications Forensic Linguistics Sociolinguists and forensic linguistic specialists can play a very important role in criminal justice. For example, juries and witnesses may be prejudiced based on someone’s language variety or misconstrue a statement based on unfamiliarity. One example (Holmes and Wilson, 2022) Sociolinguistic Applications Forensic Linguistics Linguists have also been used effectively in active investigations to identify or rule out suspects. Stanley Ellis – British dialectologist Correctly identified an area in Sunderland (north-east England) as the source of a hoax tape claiming to be serial killer ‘The Yorkshire Ripper’ (Holmes and Wilson, 2022). Summary Sociolinguistics is a relatively new field of linguistics, but has had a major influence in a number of areas. Pioneering work in the 1960s helped to establish alternative ways of analysing language, challenging the recent rise of formal linguistics. Sociolinguistics is a broad field. Crucially, all sociolinguists are interested in how and why language is used. This follows the descriptivist tradition rather than a prescriptivist one. Summary There are many practical applications for sociolinguistics, including: Informing government policy on education Identifying potential injustices In the coming weeks, we will look into these topics and more in greater detail Thank you for listening! References Deutscher, G. (2011). Through the Language Glass: Why the World Looks Different in Other Languages. Holliday, N. (2024). Complex variation in the construction of a sociolinguistic persona: The case of Vice President Kamala Harris. American Speech: A Quarterly of Linguistic Usage, 99(2), 135-166. Holmes, J., & Wilson, N. (2022). An introduction to sociolinguistics. Routledge. Levinson, S. C. (1997). Language and cognition: The cognitive consequences of spatial description in Guugu Yimithirr. Journal of linguistic anthropology, 7(1), 98-131. Meyerhoff, M. (2011). Introducing sociolinguistics. Routledge. Wodak, R., Johnstone, B., & Kerswill, P. (eds.), (2011), The Sage handbook of sociolinguistics. London: Sage