Psychology Mid Term Exam Revision Slides PDF

Revision Psychology Mid term exam DPCG Principles of Psychology Chapter 1 Introduction Ms. Sadaf Sana  Psychology as Science Psychology was once a part of philosophy. Beginning with the first psychological laboratory, founded in 1879 By German add your text Here phi...

Revision Psychology Mid term exam DPCG Principles of Psychology Chapter 1 Introduction Ms. Sadaf Sana  Psychology as Science Psychology was once a part of philosophy. Beginning with the first psychological laboratory, founded in 1879 By German add your text Here philosopher and psychologist Wilhelm Wundt.  The scientific study of behavior and the Mental process that is Definition of tested through scientific research. psychology Key terms: Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behaviour. Science: psychology uses the The word “psychology” comes scientific method to observe, from the Greek words describe, and predict behavior. “psyche,” meaning life(breath, Behavior: is everything that a spirit, soul) person does that can be directly observed. and “logos,” meaning explanation, (study of Mental processes: are the internal thoughts, feelings, and something). motives that cannot be directly observed.  Historical Perspective For thousands of years, people have been trying to answer the basic questions of human behavior, such as (a)how do our senses perceive the world? (b) how do we learn? (c) what is memory? (d) and why does one person grow and flourish, whereas another struggles in life? Early philosophers, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, debated the nature of thought and behavior, including the possible link between the mind and the body.  Functionalism study of the function or how people & animals adapt to environment. William James – known as the “father of psychology” taught first psych class in 1875 and wrote first textbook in 1890. William James (1842-1910) American psychologist and philosopher  Identify purposes, or functions, of the mind Why is human thought adaptive? Natural flow of thought, or stream of consciousness For example, an explanation for why a baby cries is that it helps the baby survive.  m.c.q Behaviorism  Study of how organisms learn or change behavior based upon responses to events in their environment.  Strict behaviorists believed that all behaviours are shaped by the environment. “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed,….. regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors”…….John Watson.  Ivan Pavlov – Classical conditioning experiment with dog’s salivation.  Behavioral B.F. Skinner & Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner – Introduced concept reinforcement to show how behaviors repeat. He expands the basic ideas of behaviorism to include the idea of reinforcement and punishment.  Behavioral John Watson & Behaviorism John B. Watson –Behavior occurs due to stimuli in environment. Demonstrated that you could take a neutral stimulus, like a rabbit, and condition someone, like a baby, to fear the rabbit by sounding an abrasive noise at the same time the rabbit was present. The baby associated the terrible noise with the site of the rabbit.  Humanistic Psychology – Belief that each person has freedom in directing his/her future an achieving personal growth. Humans are not controlled by environment, but by their own self concept. Humans are not being controlled by unconscious or environmental forces, we have free will, goals, aspirations and other positive motives which should be studied. It is influenced by Carl Rogers. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow – Humanist whose views differed from behaviorists and psychoanalysts.  Psychoanalytic Psychology study of unconscious motives & conflict determine behavior. Sigmund Freud – used free association and dream analysis to study behavior (1940). Freud believed that the human mind was composed of three elements: The id consists of primal urges. The ego is the component of personality charged with dealing with reality. The superego is the part of the personality that holds all the ideals and values we internalize from our parents and culture. Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis is a set of theories related to the study of the unconscious mind and a set of therapeutic techniques to help patients recover from psychological disorders. A psychoanalyst believes that the unconscious mind – a part of our mind we do not have access to – controls many of our thoughts and behavior. A psychoanalyst would look for impulses or memories pushed into our unconscious and try to show how these influence our behavior. Biological Psychology Chapter 2  Biological psychology Biological psychology, also called physiological psychology, is the study of the biology of behavior; it focuses on the nervous system, hormones and genetics. Biological psychology examines the relationship between mind and body, neural mechanisms, and the influence of heredity on behavior biology of behavior Neuroscience: Interdisciplinary field studying how biological processes relate to behavioral & mental processes Our nervous system consists of neurons (cells responsible for receiving & transmitting electrochemical Neural Bases of information). Psychology Neurons: The Messengers About 100 billion neurons (nerve cells) in the human brain  Neural Bases of Psychology: Applying Psychology to Everyday Life Serotonin , dopamine , Key neurotransmitters that play crucial roles in regulating mood, pleasure , endorphins and oxytocin : and overall wellbeing in the Key neurotransmitters: human body. the neurotransmitter of wellbeing  Some Well-Known Neurotransmitters Acetylcholine Released at the neuromuscular junction Plays an important role in arousal and attention Loss of ACh producing cells is linked to Alzheimer’s Disease Dopamine ( the reward molecule) Key neurotransmitters: function: influences motivation, reward and pleasure Implicated in addition, motivation, and reinforcement learning Balanced levels contribute to a sense of accomplishment and satisfaction. Loss of dopamine-producing cells causes symptoms of Parkinson’s Disease  Some Well-Known Neurotransmitters Serotonin ( the mood stabilizer ) Function: regulated mood, sleep and appetite Found throughout the brain Appears to sets an “emotional tone” Low serotonin levels are implicated in depression Adequate levels contribute to a sense of well-being and happiness Endorphins (the Natural Painkillers) Function: act as natural pain relievers and stress reducers. Key neurotransmitters: Released during exercise, laughter and other pleasurable activates Reduce pain by inhibiting or “turning down” neurons that transmit pain information  Some Well-Known Neurotransmitters Oxytocin: the bonding hormone Function: facilitates social bonding , trust and maternal behaviors. Importance: oxytocin is crucial for building social connections, trust, and emotional Key neurotransmitters: intimacy. It plays a role in forming strong relationships and maternal-infant bonding  Nervous System Organization Central Nervous System (CNS): brain & spinal cord Central Nervous System Brain Spinal Cord :  Nervous System Organization Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): all nerves & neurons connecting CNS to the rest of the body PNS is subdivided into the somatic & autonomic nervous systems Autonomic nervous system subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems Peripheral Nervous System Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System Sympathetic Division Parasympathetic Division 08 :  Nervous System Organization: Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) PNS connects CNS to the rest of the body & is subdivided into: Somatic Nervous System (SNS): connects to sensory receptors & controls skeletal muscles Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): controls involuntary bodily functions & is further subdivided into: Sympathetic Nervous System (arouses) Parasympathetic Nervous System (calms)  Nervous System Organization Sympathetic division Most active when you are angry, afraid, or aroused Fight-or-flight response Increases heart rate and breathing Stops digestion Parasympathetic division Calms body Produces effects opposite to those of the sympathetic division Reduces heart rate and breathing Restores digestion Psychology of Learning - Classical and Operant Conditioning Chapter 3 Classical conditioning 01 02  add your text Here Classical add your text Here conditioning Neutral stimulus: a stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) : a stimulus that naturally brings about a particular add your text Here response without having been learned. add your text Here Unconditioned response ( UCR): a response that is natural and needs not training (e.g. salivation at the smell of the food).  add your text Here add your text Here Classical conditioning Conditioned stimulus ( CS) : a once neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned response (CR): a response add your text Here that, after conditioning, follows a add your text Here previously neutral stimulus (e.g, salivation at the ringing of the bell) 07  Conditioned = learned. Unconditioned = not learned An unconditioned stimulus leads to an unconditioned response. Unconditioned stimulus - unconditioned response pairing are unlearned and untrained. During conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus is A conditioned stimulus leads to a conditioned response, and a conditioned stimulus- transformed into the conditioned conditioned response pairing is a consequence of learning and training. stimulus. a unconditioned response and a conditioned response are similar ( such as salivation in Pavlov's experiment ) but the unconditional response occurs naturally, where's the condition response is learned. 08 Extinction: A basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decrease in frequency and eventually disappears. Spontaneous recovery: The reemergence of extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning. Stimulus generalization: The process that occur when a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus; the more similar the two stimulus are, the more likely generalization is to occur. Stimulus discrimination: The process that occur if two stimulus are sufficiently distinct from one another that one evoke a conditioned response but the other does not; the ability to differentiate between stimuli. Operant conditioning: It is sometimes refers to instrumental conditioning. It is a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant condition. As association is made between a behavior and a consequence ( either positive or negative) for that behavior. Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences. ❑For example: rewards on getting good result Punishment Punishment: A stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behavior will occur again. Positive punishment weakens a response through the application of an unpleasant event. sometimes refers to punishment by application. e.g. rude or spank to student on misbehaving ( to decrease his bad behavior ) so next time he wont do the same. Punishment Negative punishment consists of the removal of something pleasant. ( when favorable event or outcome is removed after behavior occurs). In which you taken away the positive stimulus. E.g. a teenage girl ask to clean up her room, but she is keeping using her mobile. So you take away her mobile for rest of the day (next time she wont do the same). EXAMPLE [email protected] S add your text Here. 2518 Ext: 2569 10 Cognitive Psychology Chapter 4 Part 1 THREE STAGE MODEL OF MEMORY add your text Here add your text Here Sensory memory Iconic memory reflects information from the visual system. 01 Pictures based Seems to last less than a second. If stimulus is bright, then maybe it last little longer. Echoic memory stores auditory information coming from the ears. In addition, there are corresponding memories for each of the 02 other senses. Fades within two or three seconds. It has precision (accuracy)is very high. It can store an almost exact replica of each stimulus to which it is exposed. Short term memory (STM) Short term memory is the capacity for holding a small amount of information in mind in an active readily time available state for a short period of time. Characteristics of short-term memory: Limited capacity. Limited time (15- 30 sec). Encoding primarily acoustic ( we encode the sounds ; the words make even traveling visual information into sounds). Long term memory  Definition ▪ LTM is where we store memories for long periods of time. ▪ Once a memory is stored in LTM, it can last anywhere from a few minutes to the rest of your life. ▪ The amount of information that we can hold in LTM is thought to be infinite.  Long term memory 1 m.c.q and short question till slide forgetting module ▪ One major distinction within long-term memory is that between declarative memory and procedural memory. ▪ Declarative memory is memory for factual information: names, faces, dates, and facts, such as “a bike has two wheels.” ▪ Procedural memory (or no declarative memory/skill memory) refers to memory for skills and habits, such as how to ride a bike or hit a baseball. Once learn these behaviors become automatic and do not require much conscious thoughts.  Declarative memory ▪ Declarative memory can be subdivided into semantic memory and episodic memory. ▪ Semantic memory is memory for general knowledge and facts about the world, as well as memory for the rules of logic that are used to deduce other facts. The meaning of words The concept Understanding of formulate Geographic and historical knowledge Cognitive activities (Involve thoughts) E.g. 2+2=4, its dark at night  Forgetting ▪ Why we forget: initially encoding. ▪ Decay : Decay is the loss of information through nonuse. This explanation for forgetting assumes that memory traces, the physical changes that take place in the brain when new material is learned, simply fade away over time ▪ Displacement: when new information is added, existing information will be pushed out Forgetting Interference: The phenomenon by which information in memory disrupts the recall of other information. For example : After changing mobile number, difficulty to remember new one, and keep giving the old number to others  Forgetting Proactive (before) and retroactive (after) Proactive: Proactive interference: Interference in which information learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer mate. Occurs when you cannot learn a new task because of an old task that had been learnt. When what we already know interferes with what we are currently learning. Where old memories disrupt new memories.  Forgetting Retroactive interference: Interference in which there is difficulty in the recall of information learned earlier because of later exposure to different material. Occurs when you forget a previously learnt task due to the learning of a new task. where new memories disrupt old memories. How is Intelligence Measured?  What is IQ? Lewis Terman revised Simon and Binet’s test and published a version known as the Stanford- Binet Test in 1916. Performance was described as an intelligence quotient (IQ) which was imply the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100: IQ=MA/CA x 100 Stanford-Binet IQ Test This test measures things that are necessary for school success Understanding and using language, memory, the ability to follow instructions, and computational skills Binet’s test is a set of age-graded items Binet assumed that children’s abilities increase with age These items measure the person’s “mental level” or “mental age” Adaptive Testing Determine the age level of the most advanced items that a child could consistently answer correctly Children whose mental age equal their actual or chronological age were considered to be of “regular” intelligence  Measuring Intelligence At any age, children who are average will have an IQ of 100 because their mental age equals their chronological age. Roughly two-thirds of children will have an IQ score between 85 and 115 Approximately 95% will have scores between 70 and 130 Chapter 5 Motivation and Emotion  https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTMst8-PctiNuSRvzrJlsLrqRI8GLeXWxPaq50FHFpRdgRlirCHZQ Theories of add your text Here Motivation add your text Here Different schools of thought look at motivation ( that power that either starts or stops behavior ) through different lenses. Instinct theory Drive Theory Incentive theory  Instinct Theory A theory of motivation that add your text Here asserts that human behavior is add your text Here guided by innate biological instincts Instinct A fixed pattern that occurs without learning; rigidly patterned within a species add your text Here add your text Here we pursue sex in order to reproduce to propagate the human species. It is an innate biological need.  Drive Reduction Theory Primary Drives (innate ex: thirst, hunger) v. Secondary Drives (learned by conditioning, money) Physiological aim of drive reduction An approach to motivation that is homeostasis assumes behavior arises from physiological needs that cause internal tensions (drives) to push the organism towards satisfying the need, thus reducing tension & arousal  drive, in psychology, an urgent basic need pressing for satisfaction, usually rooted in some physiological tension, deficiency, or imbalance (e.g., hunger and thirst) and impelling the organism to action. When the motive features a biological or physiological basis, it’s called Drive The brain makes sure the body is kept in balance ( body temperature, fluid levels, energy supplies, need for rest ). This balance or optimal state is called homeostasis. This is our natural state. The body does its best to stay balanced.( hunger, thirst, sex drive, sleep ) However, how do we account for eating disorders?  Incentive Theory A theory of motivation in which incentives (either positive or negative stimuli) pull us toward a goal Behavior is guided by the pull of reward and the threat of punishment You come to class to get an A You work out to get compliments You go to work to earn money to buy a house Are all human behaviors motivated by incentives? What do you think?  Motivation: Hunger Anorexia Nervosa An eating disorder in which a person becomes significantly underweight (15%) Self-starvation diets, extreme exercise routines and delusions Bulimia Nervosa An eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating (high-caloric foods), followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting or excessive exercise Characterized by weight fluctuations  Motivation: Hunger Binge-Eating Disorder A disorder characterized by excessive weight Obesity increases the risk for a number of health issues Obesity gene? Heritability of obesity?