Psychology Revision Notes PDF

Nervous System Human Nervous System Neuromodulators Three main functions: receive, process and coordinate a response to information. Neuromodulators can alter the overall effectiveness of neural transmission in...

Nervous System Human Nervous System Neuromodulators Three main functions: receive, process and coordinate a response to information. Neuromodulators can alter the overall effectiveness of neural transmission in entire regions The human nervous system consists of two main divisions: the central nervous system and of the brain by increasing or decreasing the responsiveness of many neurons to the peripheral nervous system. neurotransmitter signals or action potentials Dopamine and serotonin are both neuromodulators that have a range of effects on brain Central Nervous System activity. Composed of the brain and the spinal cord ROLE: processes and coordinates responses to sensory stimuli from the environment Serotonin Brain Serotonin is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that also acts as a neuromodulator, influencing a ROLE: carries sensory information from the body to the brain and carries motor variety of brain activities information from the brain to the body Effects mood, perception, reward, anger, aggression, appetite, memory, sexuality and Spinal Reflex attention ROLE: receives and processes sensory stimuli from the body and coordinates responses, Serotonin is produced in the brain stem and the pathway pathway originates in the including voluntary movements, emotions and conscious thoughts brainstem and extends to almost all areas of the cerebrum, including the cerebral cortex Peripheral Nervous System Role of Serotonin in Mood Composed of the somatic and autonomic nervous system balanced serotonin levels often lead to calm, focused, happy and stable moods ROLE: carries messages between the central nervous system and muscles, organs and when the brain lacks serotonin, a person will have a reduced sleep pressure, thus glands throughout the body increasing restlessness and wakefulness when they should be sleeping. Somatic Nervous System lower levels of serotonin in the brain, particularly the cerebral cortex, lead people to ROLE: carries sensory (afferent) information to the CNS and carries motor (efferent) discount a delayed reward, increasing impulsive behaviours and can affect communication information from the CNS to skeletal muscles to control voluntary movements between specific structures within the limbic system responsible for regulating emotions. It Autonomic Nervous System makes it more difficult to control and regulate emotional responses to anger, increasing Composed of the parasympatheic and sympathetic nervous system aggressive and violent behaviours ROLE: self regulates the body’s organs, visceral muscles and glands without conscious effort (involuntary) Dopamine Sympathetic Nervous System Dopamine is a modulating neurotransmitter, or neuromodulator, because it reinforces the Activates visceral muscles, organs, and glands, preparing the body to respond to a threat neural activity in regions of the brain associated with these functions, for example the or stressor reward pathway e.g. heart rate increases to increase blood flow, enabling high levels of physical The Reward Pathway activity,pupils dilate to allow more light to enter the eyes, improving vision A group of structures in the brain that are activated by rewarding or reinforcing stimuli, Parasympathetic Nervous System such as seeing a cupcake if you are hungry or anticipating a cold glass of water if you are maintains functioning of visceral muscles, organs, and glands: returning them to optimal thirsty. and balanced functioning after experiencing arousal due to sympathetic responses, and The pathway controls our responses to natural rewards,and is an important determinant of maintaining homeostasis motivation e.g. heart beat decrease to hold a steady and regular rate that supports optimal and Drinking Behaviours and Thirst and Hunger balanced functioning, pupils constrict to allow an appropriate amount of light to enter the The gulping motion made by the throat as liquid is swallowed sends a message to the brain eyes for adequate vision that water/food has been consumed, quieting the neurons that generate the urge to drink/eat. Dopamine is also released, reinforcing the behaviour of drinking/eating or gulping, as it produces feelings of pleasure that we seek to repeat. Conscious vs Unconscious Addictive Behaviours Conscious Response Dopamine is closely related to addictive behaviours: this is because whenever we see a Any response of the nervous system that require awarenes reward worth chasing, our brain produces higher levels of dopamine, motivating us to Unconcious Response complete the task, no matter how unhealthy or difficult the task might be. Any response of the nervous system that do not require awareness Whenever we see a reward worth chasing, our brain produces higher levels of dopamine, motivating us to complete the task, no matter how unhealthy or difficult the task may be Spinal Reflex An involuntary, unconscious response to a stimulus that is initiated by the spinal cord without input from the brain Synaptic Plasticity Synaptic plasticity involves specific changes that occur within the synapse, between Neurotransmitters neurons. These changes include sprouting, rerouting and pruning; the formation, Neurotransmitters are chemicals produced by neurons that carry messages to other neurons strengthening, or weakening of synaptic connections or cells within the nervous system across a synapse Sprouting They usually have either an excitatory or inhibitory effect on the post-synaptic neuron. the ability of dendrites or axons to develop new extensions or branches Rerouting Excitatory - Glutamate the ability of a neuron that is connected to a damaged neuron to create an alternative Glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter, which increases the likelihood of the synaptic connection with an undamaged neuron post-synaptic neuron firing Pruning Glutamate is involved with learning and memory the elimination of synaptic connections that are not adequately activated Inhibitory - GABA Long-term Potentiation GABA is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter, which decreases the likelihood of the the long-lasting strengthening of synaptic connections as a result of repeated activation of post-synaptic neuron from firing the same neural pathway Long-term Depression GABA can be associated with anxiety, specific phobias and Parkinson’s disease the long-lasting weakening of synaptic connections as a result of repeated low levels of activation of the same neural pathway  Stress Stressors and Stress Response Gut-Brain Axis stressor is any event that causes stress the gut-brain axis (GBA) enables bidirectional communication between the brain and Internal and external stressors cause psychological and physiological stress the gastrointestinal tract via the vagus nerve and gut microbiota responses, including the flight/flight/freeze response in acute stress and the role of the GBA refers to the connection that exists between the central nervous system cortisol in chronic stress (CNS) and a further division of the autonomic nervous system, called the enteric Stress is a psychobiological process, a state of mental, emotional and physiological nervous system (ENS) tension in response to something that is perceived to challenge or threaten our ability Vagus Nerve and Gut Microbiota to cope the vagus nerve Psychobiological Process one of the biggest nerves connecting the brain (CNS) to organs within the autonomic biological responses include physical responses; increased heart rate, increased nervous system. It controls many crucial bodily functions and establishes one of the muscle tension main connections between the brain and the gastrointestinal tract psychological responses include feelings and thoughts that are unique to us; fear, gut-microbiota anxiety, excitement are microbe species in the gut which help to digest the components of our food to Types of Stressors provide their own nutrition while also simultaneously providing us with energy and nutrients. They are also involved in the production of some neurotransmitters, which internal stressors are causes of stress that originate within an individual can affect the concentrations of related neurotransmitters in the brain (anxiety-related e.g. biological internal stressors; illness/disease/condition that causes unpleasant behaviours) physical symptoms, psychological internal stressors; result from a person’s Impact of Cortisol on Gut- Microbiota mental processes and include thoughts, mindset and feelings, such as fear Chronic stress and increased levels of cortisol can have a profound impact on our gut external stressors are causes of stress that originate outside an individual microbiota (can cause dysbiosis) as well as our psychological processes and behaviour e.g. environmental events and social or cultural stressors; loud noises and extreme temperatures, life events, loss of a significant relationship, environmental Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) catastrophes Stress Acute Stress Sudden or short-term, usually more intense/severe, can be beneficial to help us deal with challenges and once the stressor is removed/successfully dealt with, we tend to make a quick recovery (body promptly returns to homeostasis) Chronic Stress Ongoing/prolonged/long-term, usually less intense/severe, generally more detrimental to our health (it can suppress your immune system, upset your digestive and reproductive systems and can leave you more vulnerable to anxiety, depression and other mental health problems) Lazarus and Folkman’s Transactional Model of Stress and Coping Acute Stress and Fight/Flight/Freeze Response flight-or-fight-or-freeze response is an automatic, adaptive, biological response to a perceived stressor that increases our chances of survival in our environment In fight or flight responses, you experience physiological responses, because these responses are activated by the sympathetic nervous system (which is dominant). Our arousal is increased preparing us to deal with the situation and increase our chances of survival The freeze response includes motor and vocal inhibitions and is thought to be a way for the nervous system to prepare to immediately shift into fight or flight action if required. The parasympathetic nervous system is dominant Cortisol and Chronic Stress Coping with Stress In times of chronic stress, when the stressor persists and the body continues to coping strategy is a method that people use to manage or reduce the stress perceive it as a threat, a stress hormone called cortisol is produced and is released produced by a stressor. Whether the strategy works or not is influenced by two from the adrenal cortex different factors: Cortisol predominately benefits us in times of chronic stress by: Coping coping Flexibility flexibility and Context-Specific and context-specific Effectiveness effectiveness boosting our energy levels and increasing blood glucose levels, heightening our coping flexibility is our ability to modify our coping strategies to meet the demands alertness, increasing the brain’s use of glucose, increasing the body’s ability to repair of different stressful situations tissue, diverting energy from non-essential bodily functions such as digestion, growth context-Specific Effectiveness is an assessment of whether a strategy matches or and reproduction is appropriate for a stressful situation However, high levels of cortisol in our bloodstream for prolonged periods can Approach and Avoidance Strategies be detrimental: approach strategies are efforts to confront a stressor and deal directly with it and Cortisol suppresses the immune system, making us more susceptible to colds and its effects contagious illnesses. When we experience ongoing chronic stress, our risk of cancer avoidance strategies are used to avoid the stressor rather than deal with it directly: and autoimmune diseases, as well as psychiatric conditions such as anxiety and are maladaptive as they involve changing your behaviour to avoid thinking/doing depression, increases difficult things. Can be temporarily beneficial because they relieve stress in the short term. However, in the long term the source of the stress will still be there  Learning and Memory Classical Conditioning Memory classical conditioning is a process of learning through the involuntary association memory is an active information-processing system that encodes, stores and between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus that results in a conditioned retrieves information response encoding - converting information into a useable form Structure storage - retaining information for a period of time before conditioning - the NS initially elicits no response; the UCS produces the UCR retrieval - accessing information that has been previously stored during conditioning - repeated pairings of the NS immediately before the UCS to Atkinson-Shiffrin’s Multi-store Model of Memory...............................................produce the UCR proposes that there are multiple levels to memory, and in order to store information after conditioning - after repeated pairings, the NS becomes the CS, which now alone for a long period of time, sensory information must pass through three independent...........................................produces the CR levels that function simultaneously and interact with each other to process information Operant Conditioning operant conditioning isa type of learning process in which the likelihood of a voluntary behaviour occurring is determined by its consequences. Structure Antecedent - the stimulus or event that precedes and often elicits a particular Sensory Memory behaviour function - entry point for sensory information, filters out unnecessary information, Behaviour - the voluntary actions that occur in the presence of the antecedent stores information long enough so we perceive the world as continuous Consequence - the outcome of the behaviour, which determines the likelihood that it capacity - unlimited will occur again duration - 0.2 - 4 seconds Types of Consequences Short-term Memory Reinforcement refers to a consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour function - activity manipulates encoded information, so it remains in conscious reoccurring awareness positive reinforcement - the addition of a desirable stimulus, which in turn capacity - 7 ± 2 items increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring duration - 12-30 seconds (can be increased by rehearsal) negative reinforcement - the removal of an undesirable stimulus, which in turn Long-term Memory increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring function - stores information that has been semantically encoded for future use Punishment refers to a consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour capacity - unlimited reoccurring: duration - relatively permanent positive punishment - the addition of an undesirable stimulus, which in turn decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring negative punishment - or the removal of a desirable stimulus, which in turn decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring Observational Learning observational learning is a type of social-cognitive learning that occurs when a learner observes a model’s actions and their consequences to guide their future actions Structure attention - the learner must actively watch the model’s behaviour and their Brain Areas.........................consequences hippocampus - formation and retrieval of explicit memories, consolidation of explicit retention - the learner must retain a mental representation of the model’s behaviour memories, transfers new memories to relevant parts of the brain for permanent long-.........................for future use term storage, links memories to emotions reproducibility - the learner must have the mental and physical capabilities to amygdala - formation of implicit, emotional based memories related to fear and/or.....................................reproduce the behaviour aggression, regulation of emotions such as fear and/or aggression motivation - the learner must have the desire to perform the behaviour neocortex - stores explicit memories, usually in areas relevant to specific sensory reinforcement - the consequence of the behaviour influences the learner’s processing, also links together & gathers different components of a memory during....................... likelihood of reproducing the behaviour in the future retrieval basal ganglia - encodes implicit memories to do with habits, encodes and initiates Indigenous framework of learning: 8 Ways complex well-practised sequences of movement connection to country - Country contains complex ideas about place, law, cerebellum - coordinates fine muscle movements, regulates posture and balance, the spirituality, language, cultural practise, material sustenance, family and identity encoding and storage of implicit simple memories of motor skills and classically conditioned simple reflexes  Learning and Memory Episodic and Semantic Memories Mnemonics autobiographical memory is a memory system consisting of episodes recalled from a mnemonic is any technique used for improving or enhancing memory person’s life, based on a mixture of episodic and semantic memory. purpose of mnemonics Autobiographical memory links past events together into a personal history that add information to organise the material in long-term memory, making it easier to relates self through past, present and future, essentially forming a life narrative locate and retrieve, organise information into a cohesive whole and connect new episodic memory - contains memories of distinct personal events (or episodes) that information to existing information so that partial memory retrieval generally assists are associated with a particular time and place entire retrieval, works best for remembering information that needs to be memorised semantic memory - refers to the organised factual knowledge that you possess but is not necessarily understood about the outside world Mnemonics in Written Cultures written culture is a culture in which stories and information are shared and preserved through the processes of reading and writing. mnemonics in written cultures are method of loci, acronym and acrostic Method of Loci involves committing a familiar location or sequence of locations to memory, and visually linking these locations with information that needs to be recalled. Each location acts as a retrieval cue that make it easier to retrieve the information when it is needed. If the visual association is personal in nature or bizarre, the information will be easier to recall Constructing Possible Imagined Futures Acronym episodic future thinking involves projecting yourself forwards in time to pre- involves using the first letter of each word to be remembered to create a experience an event that might happen in your personal future. pronounceable word or name. Each letter acts as a retrieval cue for the first letter of mental time travel involves the capacity to mentally reconstruct past personal each word to be recalled events and imagine possible future scenarios. episodic future thinking Acrostic involves a process of active construction of events that have not yet occurred but that a phrase (or poem) where the first letter of each word functions as a cue to help with is based on past events and knowledge. More specifically, episodic memory provides recall. The first letter of each word acts as a retrieval cue for the first letter of each the episodic elements (e.g. people, objects, locations) used to recombine and word to be recalled construct future events and scenarios and semantic memory provides a context or frameworkfor constructing and organising the episodic future thinking Mnemonics in Oral Cultures an oral culture is a culture that involve people who communicated vital information Alzheimer’s Disease and spread stories via word of mouth Alzheimer’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease characterised by the progressive mnemonics in oral cultures are widespread deterioration of brain neurons, causing memory loss, decline in cognitive songlines skills and personality changes Biological Causes of Alzheimer’s Disease Songline amyloid plaques - sticky, abnormal clusters of protein fragments that collect on the are sung narratives of the landscape that weave across the country and enable every outside of neuron's destroying the synapses and transmission of neural impulses significant place in Aboriginal Dreamings to be remembered. The song line acts as a neurofibrillary tangles - abnormal build-up of twisted strands of protein fibres retrieval cue for the location of each significant site and the specific rituals that must within neuron's, causes cell death, disrupting neural communications occur there. At the significant site, the rituals act as a retrieval cue for Dreamings lack of acetylcholine - neurons that produce acetylcholine (important memory which content a range of information encoded within the stories, songs and dances neurotransmitter) have been destroyed performed brain atrophy occurs - amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles progressively damage neurons, which die, causing the brain tissue to shrink. Whilst lesions may be detected through neuroimages, diagnosis is not confirmed until an autopsy is performed Aphantasia aphantasia is a phenomenon in which people are unable to visualise imagery symptoms of aphantasia struggling to remember or ‘relive’ autobiographical events, having difficulty imagining future or hypothetical events, having problems with factual memory, dreaming less, trouble with facial recognition causes of aphantasia include scientists aren’t sure what causes aphantasia; however, it has been suggested that areas involved in visual imagery, such as the visual cortex, may be underactive. People with aphantasia do experience mental imagery but can’t access the image in their conscious thoughts  Sleep Consciusness and Sleep Measuring Sleep consciousness is the awareness of your own internal mental processes, including subjective measures your thoughts, feelings, sensations and perceptions, and your awareness of the subjective data is data based on personal opinions and interpretations, therefore external world around you more likely to be biased normal waking consciousness is a state associated with being aware of our sleep diaries internal and external environments. In NWC we can manage our attention and our subjective, self-report tool used by a person to track their own sleep and wake behaviour, and our thoughts and perceptions are organised and clear patterns; can report time taken to fall asleep, content of dreams, stress levels, how altered state of consciousness is any state that differs in awareness from normal refreshed they feel waking consciousness advantages - insight to thoughts/feelings, can find behaviour patterns sleep is a naturally occurring and reversible altered state of consciousness, disadvantages - can be bias as relies on memory and honesty characterised by a reduction in awareness and responsiveness to external video monitoring surroundings camera footage of behavioural observations (visual/audio) and taped in the dark (during an eight-hour sleep episode, the average person will experience about five (participant not disturbed) sleep cycles, each approximately lasting 90 minutes) advantages - can be used in natural environments, able to rewatch footage disadvantages - subjective as researcher must interpret behaviour, doesnt show Types of Sleep what's happening internally, may miss events if there's a time delay non-rapid eye movement (NREM) objective measures when our body replenishes and recovers objective data is measurements of behaviour collected under controlled conditions, NREM stage 1 is a transitional phase between wakefulness and sleep. It is can be measured numerically considered to be light sleep and physiological responses begin to slow down electromyography (EEG) NREM stage 2 is also considered light sleep, during which physiological responses detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of the brain, in the form of continue to slow down. It is the stage of sleep that is experienced the most brainwaves throughout a sleep episode type of brain when does it occur frequency amplitude NREM stage 3 is considered to be deep sleep, during which physiological responses wave are at their slowest and a person is most difficult to wake up. N3 is experienced beta NWC, alert state high low more in the first half of the night, and it may not be experienced at all in the last one alpha relaxed, meditating medium-high low-medium or two sleep cycles of a typical night theta early stages of sleep medium high and low rapid eye movement (REM) delta deep sleep, unconscious low high when our mind replenishes and recovers during REM sleep, brain activity resembles wakefulness, and heart rate and electro-oculargraph (EOG) breathing rate increase, voluntary muscles are seemingly paralysed and the most detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of muscles surrounding the eye vivid and memorable dreams occur during REM sleep REM sleep - show high levels of electrical activity (lots of eye movement) NREM sleep - show low levels of electrical activity (minimal eye movement) Biological Rhythms electromyograph (EMG) circadian rhythms are biological rhythms that follows a 24-hour cycle and involve detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of muscles in the body changes in bodily functions e.g. sleep-wake cycle REM sleep - show very low levels of electrical activity (state of virtual paralysis) ultradian rhythms are biological rhythms that follow a cycle of less than 24-hours NREM sleep - show low levels of electrical activity (however sleepwalking/muscle e.g. sleep cycle (REM/NREM cycle) spasm would increase the electrical activity) as the night progresses the proportion of NREM sleep decreases while the proportion of time spent in REM sleep increases Sleep Across the Lifespan suprachiasmatic nucleus age total sleep explanation acts as an internal body clock to regulate sleep-wake cycles REM/NREM pineal gland newborn 14-17 hours - rapid brain development and growth so more REM produces and releases melatonin REM 50% sleep required NREM 50% - circadian rhythm not yet developed so sleep patterns melatonin irregular hormone which induces sleepiness, released in low light conditions young adolescent 8-10 hours - delay in the circadian rhythm as there’s a shift in REM 20% melatonin release by 1-2 hours (likely to become sleep wake cycle regulation NREM 80% sleepier and wake up later) - less time spent in NREM 3 and more in NREM 2 - require more sleep than adult due to learning and physical development adult 7-9 hours - adult sleep patterns can alter as a result of lifestyle REM 20% changes NREM 80% - later in this stage, N3 sleep begins to decline and is replaced by N2 sleep - melatonin concentrations continue to decline over SCN sends excitatory message SCN sends inhibitory message adulthood. to the pineal gland to the pineal gland elderly 5-7 hours - circadian phase advance occurs, and less sleep may REM 20% be achieved; earlier bedtime and earlier awakening NREM 80% - more awakenings during the night - amount of N3 sleep continues to decline and may not occur at all, replaced with N2 sleep - melatonin concentrations continue to decline  Sleep Sleep Deprivation Improving Sleep sleep deprivation is the experience of achieving inadequate sleep in terms of sleep hygiene is sleep-related habits/behaviours that improve the timing, quality quantity or quality and quantity of sleep partial sleep deprivation (there is a bidirectional relationship between sleep and mental wellbeing) being awake for 17-19 hours, has similar cognitive and affective effects of having a examples of good sleep hygiene BAC of 0.05% develop strong association between bed and sleeping, avoid bright lights, sleep in total sleep deprivation quiet environment, ovoid large meals before bed, avoid the use of devices before being awake for 24 hours, has similar cognitive and affective effects of having a sleep BAC of 0.10% zeitgebers psychological effects zeitgebers are external, environmental cues that help regulate/resynchronise the affective functioning refers to a person’s experience of their emotions: amplified body‘s circadian rhythm emotional responses, irritability, impatient, reduced ability to cope with stress light behavioural functioning refers to a person’s observable actions: slower reaction considered the primary zeitgeber for the human circadian rhythm. Light (blue light time, reduced coordination, risk taking increases produced naturally from sun or artificially from screens) signals the SCN to send an cognitive functioning refers to a person’s mental processing: lack of concentration, inhibitory message to the pineal gland to reduce melatonin release which reduces impaired memory, irrational thoughts, trouble with decision-making feelings of tiredness.Exposure to light at wrong times can reduce the quality and physiological effects quantity of sleep shaking hands, eyes can’t focus, slurred speech, headaches, impairs immune system e.g. no electronic devices 60 minutes before bed, switch devices to night mode, (increase in cortisol when sleep deprived) wear blue light glasses temperature Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorders body temperature is regulated by the hypothalamus (including the SCN). Air circadian rhythm sleep disorders involve a persistent pattern of sleep disruption temperature (external heat) can act as a zeitgeber to help the body prepare for sleep. due to a mismatch between the circadian rhythm and sleep cycle required A decrease in body temperature is linked with increase in melatonin = feelings of bright light therapy tiredness regular, timed exposure to intense but safe amounts of light to help resynchronise a e.g. take warm shower/bath before bed, sleep in a cool room person’s circadian rhythm with external cues eating and drinking habits Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome (DSPS) food should be consumed during the active, daylight phase of the 24-hour cycle so asleep disorder where the circadian rhythm is shifted later (as melatonin release is that the SCN and digestive system remain synchronised delayed by approximately 2 hours), causing people to go to sleep and wake up later than usual type of how does it impact sleep DSPS and bright light therapy food/drink Exposure to bright light in the early morning, to prevent melatonin release and shift caffeine caffeine is a stimulant and thus increases the activity of the circadian rhythm earlier, which extends the time a person is awake and helps the nervous system, promoting wakefulness. them feel tired earlier at night Additionally, caffeine also blocks sleep-promoting neurotransmitters Advanced Sleep Phase Disorder (ASPD) a sleep disorder where the circadian rhythm shifts earlier causing people to go to alcohol alcohol is a depressant which can increase feelings of tiredness. Therefore, alcohol can make it easier to fall sleep and wake up earlier than desired asleep; however, alcohol significantly impairs the quality usually found in elderly people due to the deterioration of the SCN = reduction in of sleep. Alcohol often negatively impacts sleep in the melatonin release / earlier melatonin release second half of the sleep episode, in which sleep ASPD and bright light therapy disruptions are more common exposure to bright light in the early evening to prevent the release of melatonin and high sugar/fat foods high in sugar and fat stimulate digestive activity delay sleep onset (should gradually adjust bedtime later each night) foods and reduces sleep quality and quantity shift work disorder spicy foods spicy foods can increase body temperature. As you when a person’s work hours are scheduled outside of normal waking hours, causing have learnt, cooler body temperatures can promote a person’s circadian rhythm to be misaligned with their work schedule sleep. Therefore, the increased body temperature from consuming spicy foods can impair sleep. Additionally, symptoms - insomnia, excessive daytime sleepiness, chronic sleep deprivation spicy foods can stimulate and increase metabolic shift work disorder and bright light therapy processes, which can make it more difficult to fall asleep  Mental Health Ways of Considering Mental Wellbeing Factors Influencing Mental Health mental wellbeing is an individual’s current state of mind, including their ability to internal factors think and process information and regulate emotions factors that arise within the individual FRES framework thought patterns, genetic predisposition external factors factors that arise from an individual environment loss of significant relationship, level of education, access to support service risk factors any characteristic that impairs mental wellbeing protective factors any characteristic that improves mental wel mental Biopsychosocial Model SEWB framework describes how biological, psychological and social factors interact to influence a this framework applies to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders communities person’s physical and mental health. These factors can contribute to conditions and multi-dimensional as there are multiple domains and contextual factors that overlap be used to manage conditions and influence self biological - genetics, substance use, poor sleep, hormones, age, gender holistic as it recognises interconnections between the different domains and psychological - stress, low self esteem and self-efficacy, rumination determinants (cannot be considered in isolation) which influences one’s wellbeing social - lack of social support, unemployment Biopsychosocial Protective Factors biological adequate nutrition and hydration when the type and amount of food and drink that an individual consumes meet their physical needs benefits improves mood, enhances resilience, healthy brain function adequate sleep the necessary amount of sleep to function effectively and cope with stressors benefits enhances memory, improves mood, restores energy 7 domains psychological body - connecting to the physical body and health in order to participate fully in all aspects of cognitive behavioural stategies life identifies, challenges and changes unhelpful thoughts and behaviours to helpful ones mind and emotions - ability to effectively manage thoughts and feelings benefits as thoughts become more rational it’s easier to adopt more helpful behaviours family and kinship - connection to the immediate and wider family group and community mindfulness meditation community- connection to wider social systems, providing individuals and families the ability the practice of meditation in which an individual focuses on their present experience to promote to connect with and support each other feelings of calm and peace culture - a strong sense of identity, values, tradition, and connection between the past, benefits improves emotional reactivity,lowers stress/anziety levels, reduces rumination present, and future that drives behaviour and beliefs country - traditional lands of a particular language or cultural group, including both social geographical boundaries and the spiritual, emotional, and intellectual connections to and within support - friends, family, community it identifies, challenges and changes unhelpful thoughts and behaviours to helpful ones spirituality - a concept that connects all things, and shapes beliefs, values, and behaviour. It family: encouragement toavoid unhealthy behaviours, outlet to vent, unconditional love guides knowledge systems, culture, and all that is life for Aboriginal people, including friends: may be easier to share with than family, fun/energising experiences, reduction in stress and connections to ancestors, the past, the present, and the future increase in happiness ancestors - a belief that a family and community’s ancestors are interconnected with Creation community: interaction with a wide range of people, opportunities for growth/learning spirits and Country and watch over, guide, and protect families and communities in the physical benefits reduced lonliness, reminder they are cared for, provides alternative coping options and spiritual world Mental Health Continuum Cultural Determinants of Wellbeing mentally healthy determinants of wellbeing factors that influence wellbeing on individual and refers to a state of mental wellbeing in which an individual realises his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life and can work productively community levels high level of functioning, high coping ability, appropriate emotional responses, culture a strong sense of identity, values, tradition, and connection between the sociable, minimal distress/dysfunction past, present and future that drives behaviour and beliefs mental health problem stronger connections to Culture and Country are protective factors,which build strong refers to a mild and temporary disruption to an individual’s usual level of mental wellbeing, individual identity, high self-esteem and levels of resilience symptoms usually disappear when stressors are removed cultural continuity functioning below optimal levels, amplified emotions and stress, some irrational the passing down and active practice of cultural knowledge, traditions, and values thoughts from generation to generation mental disorder psychological dysfunction that involves significant impairment in coping ability and atypical or self-determination inappropriate thoughts, feelings or behaviours, usually prolonged and requires treatment the rights of all peoples to pursue freely their economic, social, and cultural low level of functioning, high level of distress/dysfunction, low coping ability, may development without outside interference need to seek treatment  Specific Phobia Stress, Anxiety and Phobia Specific Phobia -Evidence Based Interventions stress a psychological and physiological response to internal/external stressors that Biological Interventions are percieved to challengea person‘s ability to cope GABA agonists / benzodiazepines anxiety a state of physiological arousal associated with feeling of GABA agonists mimic the effect of GABA, which have an inhibitory effect and make post- apprehension/worry about something in the future synaptic neurons less likely to fire, hence, reducing anxiety/arousal levels. specific phobia an anxiety disorder characterised by a persistent, irrational and breathing retraining intense fear about a specific stimulus, often leading to avoidance behaviours when confronted by their phobic stimulus people may start taking fast, shallow breaths, causing an imbalance of O2 and CO2. They are taught to consciously slow their breathing by taking slow, deep breaths which restores the balance of O2 and CO2 and will reduce physiological arousal and anxiety Psychological Interventions systematic desensitation 1. psychologist will help patient develop a fear hierarchy......e.g. photo/video/holding 2. psychologist teaches patient relaxation techniques to help them feel relaxed......e.g. breathing retraining 3. each step in the fear hierarchy is progressively presented while the patient performs a......relaxation technique. They move to the next step when they feel relaxed. This continues......until the fear response is replaced with a relaxation response Specific Phobia - Contributing Factors Biological Contributing Factors GABA dysfunction GABA is a primary inhibitory neurotransmitter that makes the post-synaptic neuron less likely to fire. People with GABA dysfunction have insufficient amounts of GABA which results in overfiring of neurons. This makes individuals more vulnerable to anxiety disorders and onset of a specific phobia long-term potentiation LTP is the relatively long-lasting strengthening of neural connections due to repeated activation of the same neural pathway. It strengthens the connection between the neural cognitive behavioural therapy pathways related to the phobic stimulus and a fear response towards the phobic stimulus, cognitive component hence the more these connections are activated (through interactions or thinking about the psychologist identifies and challenges unhelpful thoughts e.g. what is the chance of x stimulus), the stronger the fear response will be happening? the patient is then taught to change thoughts into helpful ones Psychological Contributing Factors it is then easier to change unhelpful behaviours once thoughts are more rational classical conditioning behavioural component phobias are precipitated through classical conditioning psychologist modifies unhelpful and avoidance behaviours by teaching more helpful strategies before conditioning - the NS initially elicits no response; the UCS produces the UCR e.g. breathing retraining, systematic desensitisation during conditioning - repeated pairings of the NS immediately before the UCS to Social Interventions...............................................produce the UCR psychoeducation after conditioning - after repeated pairings, the NS becomes the CS, which now 1. family and friends are provided with info about the specific phobia, e.g. triggers, symptoms,...........................................alone produces the CR treatment etc, which also helps to reduce stigma operant conditioning 2. they are taught how to challenge unrealistic/anxious thoughts of person with a phobia phobias are perpetuaated through operant conditioning e.g. help them identify unhelpful or irrational thoughts antecedent - the stimulus or event that precedes and often elicits a particular 3. they are taught how to not encourage avoidance behaviours, e.g. encourage them to use.............................behaviour breathing retraining when feeling anxious / gradually exposing them to their phobic behaviour - the voluntary actions that occur in the presence of the antecedent stimulus in a safe way consequence - the outcome of the behaviour, which determines the likelihood that it................................will occur again cognitive biases judgement errors and faulty decision-making memory bias repeatedly foccussing on negative memories about the phobic stimulus, rather than positive/neutral ones catastrophic thinking believing worst possible thing will happenrelated to their phobic stimulus Social Contributing Factors specific environmental trigger a specific stimulus can develop into a phobic stimulus through an association (direct, indirect or through observation) with a negative or traumatic experience. Through LTP and classical conditioning, it may develop into a phobia stigma around seeking treatment people with phobias experience irrational fear responses which may be viewed negatively by others, this may lead to stigma (social disapproval) and cause a person with a phobia to feel embarrassed/hide symptoms/be less likely to seek treatment